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CThe Beg inner’s English Book 


FOR THE USE OF 
ADULT STUDENTS 


••€>11 0 !!<>•• 


By MARY E. NOLIN 

v\ 

Head Teacher of the Day School for Adult Foreigners, and 
Supervisor of Evening Classes for Foreigners in 
the Schools of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. 


Third Edition 
Enlarged and Rewritten 


It is a matter of general experience that a person who 
tries to learn a foreign language entirely by conversation finds 
the vocabulary easier to acquire than the grammar. . . The 
grammatical endings will be learnt more slowly, and only the 
most striking will be learnt at all .—Henry Bradley. 


Pittsburgh, Pa. 

THE CRESCENT PRESS 
1924 


ffs/i'e 
~ .rib 


Copyright, 1921 
Copyright, 1922 
Copyright, 1924 
by 

MARY E. NOLIN 


© Cl A815242 

DEC I! 1924 


■vu i 


TABLE OP CONTENTS 


Page 

Prefatory Note to the Third Edition...xi 

Preface to the First Edition.xiii 

Introductory Note For the Teacher..xvii 

Some suggestions of an explicit kind for teaching 

the first lesson ....xvii 

Teaching the use of adjectives.xxii 

Teaching interrogative and negative sentences.xxiii 

Rate of progress. [ .xxiv 

Some suggestions for teaching Part Two.xxvi 

Teaching continuous discourse....xxvi 

Phonetics ...,..xxviii 

A few practical hints.xxix 

Speech Diagrams . xxxii 

The Alphabet . xxxviii 

PART ONE 

On the Book and Other Phrases. 3 

Adjectives . 4 

Plurals . 6 

A Piece Of . 8 

Pronouns .;..... 10 

A Piece Of Cotton Cloth .. 12 

Tin Box, Wooden Box, Paper Box . 13 

On the End of the Table . 14 

Put It, Put Them, Took It, Took Them .... 15 

Each, Inch, Edge, All, Whole . 16 

The Verb Have . 17 

This, That, These, Those . 19 

Possesive Pronouns Used Without Nouns. The Adverbs 

Here and There . 20 

Indefinite Nouns . 22 

Objective Forms of Personal Pronouns and of the Pro¬ 
noun Who . 24 

Appendix to Part One . 26 

PART TWO 

The Expression of Present Time ... 31 

Conjugation of the verb write in the present tense. 31 

The auxiliary can used to expras^ ^ability. 33 

*■' V w 



































Contents 


Page 

The auxiliary may used in asking permission . 35 

Commands and Exhortations . 35 

John and Jane at Lunch . 37 

Forms for use in making sentences . 38 

The Expression of Future time . 40 

Verbs. Future tense .-. 40 

Infinitives .....-.-. 40 

Time expressions .-. 41 

Conjugation of the verb write in the future tense. 41 

Names of the days. Time expressions . 43 

Common Questions About Persons . 45 

Forms for use in making sentences . 46 

Forms for use in making sentences . 48 

A Visitor . 50 

The Expression of Past Time . 51 

Verbs in the past tense . 51 

Time expressions. Conjugation of verb write. Past tense 52 

Henry Met His Friends .. 55 

Names of the months and seasons. Time expressions.... 56 

The structure of simple sentences . 58 

Verbs. Past tense . 59 

The Crow and The Pitcher . 60 

Some Adverbs of Time ... 61 

A Friendly Letter . 63 

The Relative Pronouns That and What . 64 

Near, Far . 65 

Before, After, Afterwards, Since, Until . 67 

Partitive Expressions .—. 68 

Expressing Amount of Time . 71 

A Shopping Trip .. 73 

Expressing Completed Action in Present Time . 74 

Verbs. Past Participles . 74 

Conjugation of the verb write in the perfect tense.•.. 75 

Buying a Suit of Clothes.:. 78 

Phrases Expressing Quantity . 79 

The Fox and The Crow . 80 

Past Participles Used as Adjectives . 82 

Expressing Completed Action in Past Time .84 

Conjugation of the verb write in the past perfect tense 84 
Renting a Room . 86 







































Contents 


Page 

The Self-Pronouns . 87 

Correlatives . 88 

Expressing Completed Action in Future Time . 89 

Conjugation on the verb write in the future perfect tense 89 

Directions for Finding One’s Way . 90 

A Call On James Sotos ..... 91 

Comparison . 1 ... 93 

Comparison of Adjectives . 93 

Comparison of Adverbs . 95 

‘More’ and ’Than’ Used in Contrasting Adjectives and 

Adverbs . 96 

The . . . The, in Comparisons . 97 

Common Measures .'. 98 

The Different-Difference Perplexity .100 

Expressing Relative Duration .—.102 

Verbs. Present Participle .....-.102 

Progressive Forms of the verb write, Present, Past, 

Future .103 

Progressive Forms of verb write, Perfect tenses.106 

Hercules and The Wagoner ...-.109 

The Distinction Between Sit and Set ...110 

The Verbs Lie and Lay .HI 

The Verbs Leave, Live, and Die .112 

A Business Letter .Ill 

Shall and Will Used to Express Volition of the Speaker....ll5 

The Man, The Boy, and The Donkey .116 

Going to, Expressing Future Time .118 

The Use of Linking (Copulative) Verbs .119 

Forms For Use in Making Sentences .120 

Some Linking or Copulative Verbs .-.120 

The North Wind and The Sun . -122 

Active and Passive Voice . 122 

Principal Parts and Conjugation of the Verb Be .124 

A List of Verbs . 125 

Interrogative Forms of the verb he .126 

Negative Forms of the verb he . 126 

A List of Verbs ...-.,.127 

Joining Sentences together .128 

Economy .1*^1 





































Contents 


Page 

Tag Interrogatives .132 

Some Idiomatic Expressions .-.133 

Characteristic Verbs . 136 

The Uses of Adjectives and Adverbs .136 

Words and Expressions of Indefinite Reference .138 

John Vanos ..*. s .116 

Phrases Having the Office of Prepositions ..Ill 

Forming Negative, Interrogative, and Emphatic Sentences, 

Concise Repetition .112 

Verbs of Special Importance for Sentence Structure....143 

Contractions . 1H 

Some Negative Expressions ..145 

Corrections of Some Common Errors ...143 

The Subjunctive Mood .152 

The Use of Modal Auxiliaries .154 

Some Uses of the Verb Get .157 

Infinitives . r .160 

Participles ...164 

Gerund or Verbal Noun . 166 

The Elements of a Sentence ..168 

Kinds of sentences . 168 

Simple subjects :. 168 

Simple predicates .;.169 

Full subject .171 

Full predicate . 171 

Uses of nouns and noun-equivalents .172 

Meanings of cases of nouns and pronouns.-.174 

Noun clauses .....176 

Nouns and noun-equivalents that follow verbs .178 

Adjectives and adjective-equivalents .181 

Adverbs and adverb-equivalents .183 

Indirect discourse (indirect narration) .191 

Indirect questions . 194 

Familiar Quotations ...^.199 

Christopher Columbus .200 

Henry Hudson . v .201 

The Pilgrims . 203 

Benjamin Franklin . 205 

George Washington .206 

Abraham Lincoln .208 








































Contents 


Page 

President Lincoln’s Letter to Mrs. Bixby .211 

Preamble to the Constitution of the United States .211 

America .....;.212 

The Star Spangled Banner .213 

APPENDIX ' 

Numerals ........217 

Numerical Expressions and Signs .....218 

Common Fractions. Decimal Fractions .220 

Common Weights and Measures .221 

Principal Parts of Verbs ..222 



















































































































































































PREFATORY NOTE TO THE THIRD EDITION 

In the present edition much new matter has been 
added to what was printed in the former editions in each 
subject. The scope and plan of the book, however, have 
not been changed. Two objects of a general kind are 
served by enlarging the book, which is now about twice 
its original size. One is to relieve the teacher, so far as 
possible, from the necessity of supplementing the printed 
exercises in order to have enough material for the pur¬ 
pose of drill. The other is to furnish the student with 
enough material, in convenient and permanent form to 
answer his requirements for private study. 

Interrogative and negative sentences, which are very 
difficult for foreign students, have now been included in 
all the exercises of the book, except that the first two or 
three lessons contain no negative sentences. 

In the second part of the book many of the lessons 
relate more especially to the subject of the verb. These 
lessons are arranged according to the tenses of the 
verb, and, in this edition, contain in the various tenses 
complete conjugations of the affirmative, negative, and in¬ 
terrogative forms. A complete list of the principal parts 
and present participles of all the verbs (some 500) that 
occur in the book is now printed in the appendix for 
the convenience of the student. 

Following the exercises in which the verb is the 
principal subject of study are printed a number of 
exercises containing sentences intended to illustrate the 
most important English grammatical usages. These sen¬ 
tences are grouped under the ordinary grammatical cate¬ 
gories, so that the student who works through the sen¬ 
tences may make some useful additions to his practical 
knowledge of the grammatical usages which they il¬ 
lustrate, and at the same time, if he pays attention to 
the designations under which the sentences are grouped 
and to the grammatical explanations that accompany 
them, may gain sufficient familiarity with English gram- 


xii Prefatory Note to the Third Edition 

matical terminology to answer his ordinary needs after¬ 
ward. 

In the discussion of phonetics in the preliminary part 
of the book some diagrams and practical hints are printed 
to assist the teacher in helping the student to learn the 
most important vowel and consonant sounds. 

The present edition is divided into two parts instead 
of three. Most of the exercises in continuous discourse 
which made up Part Three of the former editions have 
now been distributed through Part Two, the rest being 
printed at the end. 

It is hoped that the book in its present form will 
supply the foreign student with all the special matter 
that he will need for his study of English. 

M. E. N. 

Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 

September, 1924. . 


PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION 


The object of this book is to present in convenient 
form matter for teaching adult foreigners the construc¬ 
tions of English sentences and for teaching them at the 
same time an English vocabulary of the kind required by 
beginners. 

There being no necessary logical arrangement, the 
chief usages of English speech are presented in the order 
that seems best adapted to the requirements of teaching. 
The matter of the book has been arranged so that each 
lesson introduces only one new feature, apart of course 
from new words, and at the same time repeats, in forms 
varying to meet the requirements of drill, words and con¬ 
structions previously learned. 

The thought expressed by the English sentences used 
in the first two parts of the book can be readily com¬ 
municated to the pupils by the use of objects, gestures, 
motions, and signs, and always should be so communicated 
when being presented for the first time. In the early 
stages of the instruction many of the most important 
processes of learning oral and written speech must of 
necessity take place in the presence of the teacher and 
under her immediate observation and control. While 
these are going on, however, the teacher need utter no 
words, and indeed should utter none except what are 
required to make the original utterance of the English 
phrase or sentence that is being taught, and except what 
are necessary afterward to repeat it from time to time at 
the proper moment in order to correct the learner’s pro¬ 
nunciation and to reinforce his new impression. If the 
recitation is rightly conducted, no talk by the teacher 
is ever required to arouse interest or hold attention. Oral 
explanations and suggestions made while the main objects 
of the lesson are the center of attention may be dispensed 
with altogether; and if offered, they usually come as a 
distraction and a distinct hindrance to learning. But 
the zealous teacher particularly, although she may know 
this, often finds it difficult to refrain from attempting 


XIV 


Preface to the First Edition 


such assistance. So important is it, indeed, to avoid 
diverting and confusing the learner’s attention at this 
time that the lack of a convenient medium of oral com¬ 
munication between the teacher and the learner seems 
to be, on the whole, not a hindrance, but an aid to teach¬ 
ing; it helps to keep the teacher quiet while these im¬ 
portant learning processes are going on, and results in 
allowing the learner’s attention to be riveted to the 
thought and English expression alone. Accordingly the 
direct route to the end aimed at in the first stage of 
the instruction is through thought suitable to teaching, 
exhibited by means of concrete acts without comment. 

In the matter of the selection of words, the aim has 
been to present the necessary elements of vocabulary 
that are common to all kinds of discourse, rather than 
to introduce an elaborate array of special nouns and 
verbs, for which the beginner is sometimes supposed'to 
have an immediate and urgent need. The book is intend¬ 
ed to lead up to and make a beginning at using con¬ 
tinuous discourse, written and oral, as a means of 
further study of English. The first two parts, which 
are preliminary to the use of continuous discourse, can 
be learned in a comparatively short time, say from six 
weeks to two months. Consequently it has been thought 
best not to overstress nouns and verbs at the expense of 
relational words. It is interesting and worth while in 
this connection to recollect that while relational words 
are only a comparatively small part of English vocab¬ 
ulary, yet of all the words found in a given piece of 
ordinary English discourse, relational words constitute 
something like sixty per cent of the whole. And there is 
of course no such thing as adequately comprehending the 
commonest kind of such discourse without understanding 
them. Moreover there seems to be no way to effect a 
speedy preparation for the use of continuous discourse 
by the learner except through a prompt presentation of 
at least the rudiments of the relational elements of the 
language. 


Preface to the First Edition 


xv 


The ideas of teaching which these lessons attempt to 
express are a result of the experience of some six years 
occupied with teaching beginning English to adult 
foreigners. In the introductory chapter will be found 
some detailed observations in the form of suggestions for 
teaching the lessonfc. These suggestions are put in con¬ 
crete and specific terms for the sake of clearness and 
brevity, and in the hope that, thus expressed, they may 
in a measure take the place of a class-room demonstration 
from which the reader may draw his own particular 
conclusion about methods of teaching. There is no in¬ 
tention of insisting upon as essential all of the details 
of the teaching procedure illustrated. It is a fact, how¬ 
ever, that lessons arranged on the plan of this book 
do afford a speedy and effective introduction to the use 
of continuous discourse, and without requiring any special 
gift for teaching, enable the teacher to hold interest 
and attention and to keep them fixed where they do 
most good. Even pupils who are permitted to continue 
their study of English in school for only, a short time 
take with them when they leave a benefit from the fact 
that they have been taught systematically in the manner 
required by such lessons as these. For afterwards, when 
they come to learn a new sentence or sense-group or 
word by their own efforts without the assistance of a 
teacher, they are able to go about it intelligently; they 
easily and naturally, without any thought about it, attend 
to significant distinctions and make useful discriminations 
in the act of learning that would have escaped them, if 
their brief instruction had not been systematic and 
methodical in the sense suggested. 

M. E. N. 


Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 
September 21, 1921. 
































































i 

































. 










INTRODUCTORY NOTE FOR THE TEACHER 


SOME SUGGESTIONS OF AN EXPLICIT KIND FOR TEACHING 
THE FIRST LESSON 

The teacher, having on the table the objects men¬ 
tioned in the first lesson, takes a pencil in her hand and, 
without releasing it, places it successively on the book, 
into the book, beside the book, and under the book, thus 
communicating to the student without ambiguity very 
simple and very definite pieces of meaning. At the proper 
moments as she does so, the teacher utters the appropriate 
English phrases, ‘on the book,’ ‘into the book,’ and so 
on, clearly, distinctly, and so far as is possible with the 
same voice qualities (such as quantity, stress, and into¬ 
nation) as though the utterances were parts of continuous 
discourse. The teacher then repeats this performance 
several times, in order that the students may have ample 
opportunity to listen to the teacher’s utterances and to 
observe the movements of her speech organs. In repeat¬ 
ing the phrases the teacher should be careful to make the 
utterances the same each time (a difficult thing to do) 
so as to reinforce the learner’s original impression without 
confusing him. She then uses other objects, but not many, 
to teach similar phrases, indicating the meaning and 
uttering the phrases as before, until the class has had 
ample opportunity to grasp the general senses that run 
through all the phrases mentioned in the lesson. 

At this point of the instruction the teacher, return¬ 
ing to the first phrase, indicates the meaning and utters 
the corresponding English phrase as she did at the be¬ 
ginning. Then, giving the direction by gesture, she in¬ 
dicates to one of the class {not to all) that he shall utter 
the phrase. It is important that the teacher should give 
the direction by signs, and not orally, as by using the 
word ‘say,’ because almost invariably the beginner gives 
back the whole of what he hears. Besides, another utter¬ 
ance serves no purpose and comes as a distraction to the 
beginner. 



xviii Introductory Note for the Teacher 

The consciousness of a learner in the act of learning 
is a delicate thing, and can tolerate little disturbance. 
Whatever assistance the teacher may offer must be given 
delicately and with deft precision. 

After a little practice at listening to phrases and 
reproducing them, the class is ready to attack a complete 
sentence. As a preliminary, the teacher teaches them her 
own name in some such way as this: pointing successively 
to two or three members of the class, and pronouncing 
their names as she does so, the teacher then points to 

herself and pronounces her own name, ‘ Miss-. Then 

she lays a pencil on the book and removes here hand. 
After removing it, she utters the complete sentence, ‘Miss 
-put a pencil on the book. ’ As she finishes the utter¬ 
ance, she indicates by a gesture to the first student that 
he shall reproduce it; then to the second, and so on, 
around the class. If some member of the class, failing 
to make a satisfactory response, hesitates too long or 
gropes around for words, the teacher should repeat the 
sentence for him at once. 

This is no place to discuss the psychology of the 
learning process; but for the teacher here to ask some 
question, or to make some explanation, or to do anything 
else than simply to renew and reinforce the learner’s 
imperfect impression by a prompt repetition of the sen¬ 
tence, is a waste of time and worse. As has been wisely 
observed long ago, “To every thing there is a season, and 
a time to every purpose under the heaven: . . . a time 
to rend, and a time to sew; a time to keep silence, and 
a time to speak.” ( Eccles .) 

After the class has learned a few complete affirm¬ 
ative sentences in this way, the interrogative sentence 
‘What did Miss - do?’ is taught. The teacher, pre¬ 

senting the meaning of the affirmative sentence in the 
manner above described, follows the motions and signs 

by the words, ‘Miss - put a pencil on the table. 

What did Miss - do?’ inviting by a gesture an 

answer from one of the students, the teacher continues: 







Introductory Note for the Teacher 


xix 


‘ Miss —••— put a pencil on the table. ’ The student address¬ 
ed responds readily with the answer, ‘Miss - put a 

pencil on the table.’ The teacher then again utters the 
question, ‘What did Miss-do?’ (with a gesture direct¬ 

ing the student addressed to ask the question to the next 
student). This elicits a repetition of the words spoken and, 
at the same time, teaches him that he has asked a question. 

The chief reason for teaching the interrogative sent¬ 
ence at this time is that from now on it may be used as a 
means of passing affirmative sentences from one learner 
to another. 

After several affirmative sentences have been thorough¬ 
ly taught, the teacher develops one of the sentences again, 

in the same manner as originally, for example, ‘Miss -- 

put a box on the book,’ and has all the members of the 
class in turn reproduce it orally. Then, to reinforce the 
new impression once more, she again utters the sentence, 
‘Miss - put a box on the book,’ and by gesture indi¬ 

cates that all the learners are to write it on the black¬ 
board. 

The teacher may not know whether all of them can 
w r rite or not. She should assume that all can write. 
Many will in fact make a fair attempt from the start. 
After a few lessons, as experience shows, most of the 
others will be found to be writing in a satisfactory man¬ 
ner. It is a waste of time to show the students the written 
or printed form of the sentence before having them at¬ 
tempt to write it. Whatever assistance may be called for 
can readily be given to the individuals who need it. As 
the students are writing at the board, the teacher passes 
along and, without speaking, makes corrections. For those 
who are not writing, and who know how to form the 
letters but lack the courage to try the spelling, she writes 
‘on the book,’ uttering the phrase after it is written, 
and leaves them to copy it. For those who cannot form 
letters, she draws the conventional writing lines and on 
them writes the loop letter, b,f,h,k, and I, leaving the 
learners to copy these. After sufficient time has been 







xx Introductory Note for the Teacher 

given for all to write, the teacher (adhering to the prac¬ 
tice of confining oral directions to the briefest) utters 
no more than the word ‘Erase.’ 

The writing lesson for that sentence is now ended. 
Whatever • shortcomings the writing may have disclosed 
will be dealt with at another time. In a few days most 
of the students, in one way and another, will make up 
their deficiencies in writing, themselves, with only inci¬ 
dental assistance from the teacher. But for the present 
the lesson goes on to other exercises, and all attend. 

The teacher utters the sentence again for the purpose 
of reinforcing the learners’ mental impression, and giving 
her direction by gesture in the usual way, has each learner 
in turn reproduce it orally. 

After the class has had sufficient practice at listening 
to sentences and reproducing them orally, the teacher 
reads the corresponding sentences in the book aloud to 
the students, who follow the reading with their books 
open. 

Next, the teacher hears each student in turn read as 
many sentences as she has time for. While each student 
is reading, the rest should be permitted to study as they 
please and should not be required to listen to the reading, 
because at this time one student learns little, if anything, 
from listening to the reading of another. 

The student’s reading should proceed by sense- 
groups and sentences as natural speech does. In this 
way the learners begin to acquire the natural swing 
and rhythm of the language, so important for many 
reasons. 

Nor can concert work, as a short cut or sort of 
mass-instruction, be used with profit at this time, if at 
any time. The reasons are obvious. To mention faulty 
utterances only: one learner fails to reproduce the sounds 
that have been presented to him because he does not hear 
them correctly—perhaps he has not yet learned to dis¬ 
tinguish the minute sound differences involved; another 
fails because, although he received the correct sound-im- 


Introductory Note for the Teacher xxi 

pression, he has not succeeded in adjusting his speech 
organs rightly. But with whatever result the utterance 
is made, whether rightly or not, both the learner himself 
and the teacher should hear it. If the learner is success¬ 
ful, he has the sound of his own voice as an added factor 
in helping to fix the new utterance. And if he fails, both 
must hear distinctly, in order that together they may 
make the correction at once, when it is most needed and 
can be made with greatest effect. It is, besides, a saving 
of time to stop the formation of wrong speech-habits at 
the earliest moment. Concert work is a positive bar to 
these good effects, as well as to others. 

To state again in outline the teaching procedure 
suggested: 

1. The teacher expresses appropriate meaning by the 
use of objects, motions, and signs. 

2. She utters the equivalent English sentence, clearly, 
distinctly, and naturally. 

3. Each student in turn reproduces the English utter¬ 
ance. 

4. The teacher again utters the sentence. 

5. All the students write the sentence on the blackboard. 

6. While the writing is going on the teacher makes cor¬ 
rections without comment. 

7. After all the sentences have been so presented and 
taught, the students open their books for the first 
time, and listen while the teacher reads the sentences 
from the book. 

8. Each student reads aloud all the sentences in suc¬ 


cession. 


XXII 


Introductory Note for the Teacher 


TEACHING THE USE OF ADJECTIVES 

In order to enable the learners to add the English 
equivalents of the ideas dong’ and ‘short’ to what they 
have already learned, the teacher takes a long pencil 
in one hand and a short pencil in the other, and after 
letting them see her compare the lengths of the two 
pencils by holding them together, holds up the long 
pencil and utters the phrase, 'a long pencil;’ then 
holding up the short pencil, she utters the phrase, ‘a 
short pencil. ’ She does not utter merely the words 
‘long,’ ‘short’ alone, and she spends no time in elucidat¬ 
ing the meanings of these words as words, but without 
discussion or comment of any kind, she puts the long 
pencil into the long box and then utters the complete 

sentence, ‘Miss - put a long pencil into the long box.’ 

Here, as generally, in uttering the sentence, she is careful 
to make the utterance correct as a whole. She makes 
no separation of words in the sentence, but runs them to¬ 
gether in succession as syllables in a word, using in¬ 
tonation, pause, and stress to distinguish sense-groups 
and to express the natural emphasis required in the 
sentence. The teacher then drills the class on the sen¬ 
tence in the manner already set forth in detail. 

So, substantially, should be taught all the sentences 
given for practice. The teacher presents each new lesson 
by teaching the phrases and sentences which it contains 
as phrases and sentences in the manner described. If new 
matter in a lesson can be presented for the first time 
better by using a phrase than by using a sentence, she 
uses a phrase; but she never teaches words as isolated 
words. In this connection the teacher will note that the 
lists of words printed at the beginning of many of the 
subjects are intended primarily for the use of the 
student after he has been taught the lesson, and are 
not to be made the subject of specific instruction in the 
shape in which they are written, such as, for example, in¬ 
struction in pronunciation, spelling, writing, or word¬ 
meaning. 


Introductory Note for the Teacher xxiii 

TEACHING INTERROGATIVE AND NEGATIVE SENTENCES 

Interrogative sentences are an important form of 
discourse and present special difficulties to the beginner, 
who finds his main difficulty in forming a question him¬ 
self, rather than in understanding one that is asked by 
somebody else. 

English interrogative sentences are hard for foreign- 
born students because they require special word order and 
because the English verb has special auxiliary forms to 
express interrogation. The same observations apply to 
negative sentences. For these reasons all the interrogative 
and negative as well as the affirmative forms are printed 
in the conjugations of the verb, and exercises in the use of 
interrogative and negative sentences are made an import¬ 
ant part of the teaching throughout the book. In hold¬ 
ing a recitation in the subject of interrogative sentences 
the teacher will present both the question and the answer, 
and she will be careful to permit no deviation in the form 
of either until the learner has mastered them. A 
reason for adhering to the forms fixed upon is that 
varations are bewildering to beginners to an extent 
hard for a person who knows the language to appreciate. 
Besides, one form of question is as much as beginners can 
profitably attempt to learn at one time. 

Interrogative sentences are introduced in the first 
lesson and are made an important part of the study in all 
the lessons of the book. In the early lessons the teacher 
gives the patterns for both the questions and the answers 
by uttering them herself, conveying the meaning in the 
same way as she conveys the meaning for declarative sen¬ 
tences. In the later lessons, she may merely read them 
from the book to feach the oral utterances and let the 
student afterward study them until he is able to give 
them without assistance. After the oral exercise has been 
finished, the student writes the questions and answers 
from memory. 

Interrogative exercises take two forms. In the first, 
the questions are asked by one student and answered by 


xxiv Introductory Note for the Teacher 

another in the manner described in the directions for 
teaching .the first lesson. In the second kind of exer¬ 
cise, each student both asks and answers all the questions 
printed in each group of questions, without assist¬ 
ance from the teacher. In the same way, conveying the 
meaning by using the objects to which the questions relate, 
the teacher asks and answers the whole series of questions 
as they appear in the book. Then, by appropriate signs, 
she directs each student in turn to ask and answer all 
the questions. After each student has asked and answered 
all of them, all the students write all the questions and 
answers on the blackboard. If a student fails to do this 
exercise well, he is permitted to study the sentences in 
the book and to try at another time. But practice at 
this exercise should always be persisted in until all the 
students are able to ask and answer all the questions, to 
carry them all in mind at once, and to write them on 
the blackboard, without any assistance from the teacher, 
having nothing to assist the memory except the objects 
before them. 

RATE OF PROGRESS 

The student’s progress, particularly in the early part 
of the course, can be measured only by results, not by 
time. The aims to be accomplished by teaching Part One 
are very limited. The language material contained in the 
lessons is sufficient for the purpose, and no new language 
material or additional objects should be used. The student 
should confine his attention to this limited language 
material until, with the objects mentioned before him, 
he is able to hold in mind, to reproduce orally, and to 
write on the blackboard, without being prompted, as long 
a sentence as the teacher sees fit to give him. After he 
has learned these lessons thoroughly, he should be able, 
when he makes mistakes in pronunciation, to recognize 
at once the fact that he is making them (no mean achieve¬ 
ment!), and should know how to go about correcting them. 
This does not mean that henceforth he will always be able 


Introductory Note for the Teacher 


xxv 


to correct his mistakes in pronunciation to his own or his 
teacher’s satisfaction, or that he will always be aible to 
avoid making similar mistakes afterward; establish¬ 
ing new r speech habits takes time. It does mean, how¬ 
ever, that the original strangeness and perplexity which 
English pronunciation produced in his mind have been 
replaced by a feeling of familiarity and the ability to 
deal intelligently with the subject. In short, it may be 
said that the student is ready to go on and take up the 
study of the second part of the book when he has dis¬ 
posed of the general difficulties of pronunciation, and has 
so mastered the sentences he has studied in the first part 
of the book that he is able to hold in mind sentences of 
considerable length made of language material with which 
he is familiar, and to reproduce them understandingly, 
accurately, and fluently. 

With most classes the teacher will not be able to ac¬ 
complish these results merely by working through the 
lessons at a gradual, uniform rate of speed. Nor is it 
necessary that she should. By improvising suitable new 
affirmative, negative, and interrogative sentences out of 
the language material already presented, the teacher can 
at any time review in a short period all the ground pre¬ 
viously covered, without dull repetition, and without the 
students’ being aware that a review is going on. Thus 
she can have the class go over the whole course with 
the same interest as they had in the original pre¬ 
sentation. If the teacher will proceed in this way to 
teach the subject, and not merely the lessons, and will 
content herself to make what may seem to be slow pro¬ 
gress at first, she will find that the rate of progress 
through the second part of the 'book will more than make 
up for the extra time spent on Part One. When the 
teacher finds herself yielding to the inclination to let her 
students go on to new matter before the foundation has 
been thoroughly laid, she may recollect that a change in 
mental activity is not always the same thing as progress 
in learning. 


XXVI 


Introductory Note for the Teacher 


SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHING PART TWO 

The method of procedure for teaching Part Two is 
in the main the same as that used for teaching Part One. 
Here, however, the use of objects, motions, and signs to 
convey meaning is gradually discontinued. In this part 
of the book verbs are an important and the most difficult 
part' of the study. In the conjugations of the verb in 
the various tenses the interrogative and negative as 
well as the affirmative forms are given in full. The uses 
of the tenses are first presented, not formally, but by 
means of examples, and with them the use of time ex¬ 
pressions. In accordance with the suggestions previously 
made about conveying meaning without the distraction of 
oral explanations by the teacher, the distinctions of time 
may be conveniently taught by using the calendar. 

In this part of the book some of the lessons have 
printed with them lists of verbs, marked ‘Reference 
matter for the learner.’ Each of these lists the pupil 
will attempt to use only after he has been taught the 
practice exercise that accompanies it; he can make no 
profitable use of it before. 

TEACHING CONTINUOUS DISCOURSE 

After the learners have studied the text for a while 
in their books, the teacher, without discussion or com¬ 
ment, reads it to them, while they follow the reading 
with their books open. Next, each student reads the 
entire text aloud. The teacher makes no interruptions 
except to correct pronunciation. 

The learners will not yet have succeeded in under¬ 
standing all of the meaning. What their deficiencies 
are the teacher will be able to judge pretty well from 
her knowledge of what they have already learned in the 
preceding lessons, from the questions they ask, and some¬ 
how from their general behavior during the oral reading. 

In order to assist them further with the meaning, 
she sends all to the blackboard and dictates sentences 


Introductory Note for the Teacher 


XXV11 


to them. The first sentence or two, improvised at the 
time or previously thought out and containing some dif¬ 
ficult word or construction found in the lesson, should 
have no connection in meaning with the text and should 
be the simplest the teacher is able to invent. These 
sentences and all others used for this purpose she teaches 
as thoroughly as any in the previous exercises, following 
the ordinary method of procedure, always ending with 
the written exercise. After giving one or two sentences 
unconnected in meaning with the text, the teacher gives a 
sentence that is related in meaning and construction with 
the text. Sometimes she uses the very sentence in which 
the difficulty occurs. 

After sufficient drill of this kind the learners are 
once more permitted to study the text. A few minutes 
later the teacher reads it aloud to the class, who with 
their improved understanding of the text, are now eager 
to listen. Since the utterances of the teacher are the 
learner’s models of expression, beginners receive much 
benefit from hearing the teacher read continuous dis¬ 
course with the meaning of which they are familiar. 
Each learner is now required to tell what he has read in 
his own way, the others being permitted to study in the 
meantime. The teacher makes corrections but no ex¬ 
planations while the learner is telling the story. If his 
reproduction proves unsatisfactory, he is permitted to 
study more and to try again at a later time. Such an 
opportunity, if needed, the learner himself almost always 
requests. After all the learners in turn have told the 
story, each writes it. It may be here stated generally 
that all these exercises connected with the learning of 
continuous discourse are found to be intensely interesting 
to the learners, and no lack of attention is ever en¬ 
countered. 


xxviii Introductory Note for the Teacher 
PHONETICS 

The importance of correct pronunciation is often over¬ 
looked. It is more than an ornament to the foreigner’s 
use of English; it is an indispensable requisite to his 
ability to understand the full meaning of oral speech. 
Moreover, if the preferences of the foreigner himself are 
to be regarded in determining what shall be included in 
his English instruction, pronunciation must be made a 
part of it. Most foreign students, illiterate as well as 
learned, have an ambition to speak English ‘as native- 
born speakers of English do’. And they may often be 
observed to be dissatisfied, and sometimes to lose interest 
altogether, if the teaching does not lead toward that result. 

The student will learn English pronunciation by 
listening to his teacher utter the sentences; he has no 
other source from which to learn it. Probably no formal 
lessons in phonetics will be given, but the teacher herself 
should have as much knowledge of the subject as possible 
in the background and must make every effort in her 
power to secure correct pronunciation from the student. 
In teaching the lessons, particularly the first lessons, 
she will take pains to make her own utterances of the 
sentences correct utterances, being careful at the same 
time to make them natural utterances. She will insist 
that the students make substantially correct reproductions, 
and make them a sufficient number of times to establish 
correct pronunciation, accepting from the very start no 
slipshod results. 

In various places through the book, but particularly 
at the beginning, some of the words and phrases used 
have been put in with a special view to phonetic con¬ 
siderations. Examples of these in the first lesson are the 
word bottle and the group, pan, pen, and pin . 

When listening and observation fail to enable the 
learner to make the proper adjustments of his speech 
organs, the teacher must resort to some more detailed in¬ 
struction. Sometimes a rough diagramatic sketch drawn 
on the blackboard is enough to help the learner over the 


Introductory Note for the Teacher 


xxix 


difficulty. For example, a few lines may be drawn to pic¬ 
ture the mouth wide open in pronouncing the vowel sound 
of the word pan; the lines may diverge less to picture 
the mouth a little more closed as in pronouncing pen; 
still less, to illustrate the position for uttering the vowel 
sound in thq word pin. The most important thing, how¬ 
ever, is that both teacher and student persevere at some 
kind of practice exercise until the difficulty is removed. 


A few brief practical hints 

The following remarks relate to some of the most 
troublesome obstacles that stand in the way of the foreign 
student who is beginning to learn oral English speech. 

The most important vowel sounds, as they occur in 
ordinary Epglish speech, are the ones that receive the 
primary and secondary stresses; the others are obscure 
and more or less indistinguishable. Most foreigners 
shorten the time properly required for uttering the 
vowel sounds of the stressed syllables. Usually the teacher 
can correct this by repeating the faulty utterance and 
then pronouncing the phrase correctly, giving the proper 
lengths of time to the vowel sounds in question, or even 
exaggerating their lengths a little. 

A word of caution to the teacher. In giving the 
correct or exaggerated pronunciation of the phrase the 
teacher must be careful to make the transition from sound 
to sound without a break, and to keep the stresses where 
they belong. 

The vowel sounds of a as in pan, e as in pen, and 
i as in pin are among the most difficult for foreign 
students to pronounce correctly and to distinguish from 
each other. The student was taught in the first lesson 
how to pronounce those words. Afterward, when the 
student mispronounces one or the other of these vowel 
sounds the teacher may correct him by simply pro¬ 
nouncing the appropriate word in the series. 


XXX 


Introductory Note for the Teacher 


The sounds represented by the vowels in the words 
late, go, and bite are compound sounds, and are more 
than ordinarily difficult for foreigners. 

The compound sound a may be taught by using this 
device: write on the blackboard the ‘words pen and me. 
Pronounce the two words several times in the order given. 
Then, dropping out the consonant sounds, pronounce the 
vowel sounds of the two words slowly and distinctly, 
several times in the same order. And finally, pronounce 
them more and more rapidly until they run together and 
produce the compound vowel sound of a in late. 

Bite. With the words pan and me on the blackboard, 
utter the vowel sound in pan. Then with the speech 
organs in the same position, but with the mouth opened 
a little wider, utter a vowel sound and let it glide into 
the sound of e in me. This is the compound vowel sound 
of i in the word bite. 

Go. With the lips well rounded, begin to utter the 
o sound; prolong this initial sound, and let it glide into 
o as in do. This looks simple enough. However, the 
learner often fails to round his lips; and also, perhaps 
still oftener, lets the issuing sound glide into a as in about. 

Consonants give the foreign student quite as much 
trouble as vowels do. Generally, the foreigner does not 
know when to use a voiced and when a voiceless sound, 
and is unable to learn the distinction from listening to 
the ordinary rapid speech of a native. In making the 
final consonant sounds he usually stops the stream of 
breath before he relaxes his speech organs; whereas an 
English speaker continues the breath after the organs 
are relaxed. Foreign students also, almost without ex¬ 
ception, fail to pronounce many of the final consonants 
with sufficient vigor to make the utterance correct, or 
even intelligible. And they have many other and more 
special difficulties which require some special guidance 
from the teacher in the matter of phonetics. 

The consonant sounds that present the first and most 
important difficulties to foreigners are the ones, de- 


Introductory Note for the Teacher 


xxxi 


scribed in the diagrams printed on the following pages. 
These are the sounds of the two series: 

p and b; t and d; lc and g, 
m; n ; ng, 

voiced and voiceless th, and the sound of the letter r. 

The various positions of the speech organs used in 
making these sounds are explained in the diagrams. In the 
first series the nasal passage is closed, and the two sounds 
of each member differ from each other only in the fact 
that one is voiced and the other is not. The sounds of 
the second series are voiced sounds, made with the nasal 
cavity open, and with the lips and tongue in substantial¬ 
ly the same relative positions as they occupy in the corre¬ 
sponding sounds of the first series. As a rule, in English 
speech when ,9 follows a final voiced consonant, the s is 
voiced; for example, in the word tubs; when it follows a 
voiceless final consonant, it is usually voiceless; for ex¬ 
ample, in cups. Final ed conforms to the same rule; for 
example, supped, rubbed, backed, and bagged. But when 
ed follows either of the sounds represented in fig. 2, it 
becomes a separate syllable; and then the e is lightly 
sounded and is followed by the voiced sound of fig. 2, (d). 

If the teacher will correct the student’s utterances 
according to these suggestions, and will afterwards insist 
on his observing the rules until he has brought his ut¬ 
terances into reasonable conformity with them, she will 
find that she will help him over many of his first 
and greatest difficulties in learning English pronuncia¬ 
tions, and she will accomplish the desired result with¬ 
out consuming any great amount of time in the process. 


SPEECH DIAGRAMS FOR CONSONANT SOUNDS 


I 


«+-l 

© 


02 

d 

0 

© 

02 


© 

© 

d 

d 

© 

© 


43 

§ 

© 

o 


o 

© 


•© 
© 
© 
• rH 

O 

i> 

d 


© 

r© 


be 

d 

• rH 

*§ 

1 


d 

© 

• rH 

H© 

S 

• rH 

> 

+ 


02 

P 

d 

be 

© 

O 


© 

CO 

© 


© 

ft 

02 

be 

<d^ 

© 

rd 

be 

4*3 

H© 

«4H 

d 

© 

d 

02 


B 


© 

• »\ 

» rH 
4-3 

• rH 

©T 

xn 


© 

ft 

be. 

«d 



© 


rd 

44 



© 

d d 

• rH 

£ +* 
o _ 

rd 

02 ^ 

T—i 

xn 

% be 
cd 

d 

© 

<J r© 


o 


o 

ft 

4-3 

d 

•© 

© 

02 

O 

r I 
© 

02 


> 

d 

© 


d 

m 

d 

d 

© 

rd 


Q 


1§ 

d 


02 

H© 

. d 
d 
o 
02 

© 

02 

© 


d 

© 

© 

Pd 


© 

© 

d 

d 

©i 

© 


02 

03 

© 

'© 

© 

• rH 

'> 

d 

02 

© 

4-3 

d 

© 

• r—< 

r © 

d 






FIG. 1. FIG. 2. FIG. 



















> 

4~ 

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II 

be 


CO 

II 


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04 

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ft 

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SPEECH DIAGRAMS FOR CONSONANT SOUNDS 



FIG. 4. PIG- 


















> 

+ 

<x> 


bJO 

G 


> 

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LO 

if 

g 


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bo ^ 

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ll "2 

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G g 
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N N N 


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c .5 g 

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G O 
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N 

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w 



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be bo be be 

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XXXVI 


Introductory Note for the Teacher 


th=(7+v) 

I 

ii 

this 

thin 

than 

three 

these 

thirty 

with 

fifth 

breathe 

breath 

breathes (z) 

breaths 

lathes (z) 

sixths 


Theodore bought this lathe 
thirty-three dollars. 



r=(8+v) 


rice 


hurry 

read 


correct 

run 


produce 

Rose 


country 

burrs 

(z) 

tears (z) 

cars 

(z) 

firs (z) 



Rose reads and writes rather readily 


FIG. 8. 














Introductory Note for the Teacher xxxvii 
a, as in late 

They may play a game on the table. 

Jane and May say Ray may come to-day. 

i, as in bite 

I buy five pounds of nice white rice. 

o f as in go 

Joe will go to the garden and hoe. 

Joe goes to mow, to hoe, and to row. 

th 

There are three trees in the garden. 

You cannot sew that thin cloth with that thick thread. 
Thirty-three thirsty thrushes thrust their heads 
through the bushes in the thicket. 

My mother’s other brother has a broader board. 

h 

Hannah has Hattie’s hood in her hand. 

Hurry home, Harry, Henry has his horse here for you. 
w 

What a wdiite woolen waist Wilda wears! 

Why will William and Walter wait at the window? 

fy v 

He paid five dollars for his fife. 

-tie 

Little Myrtle Riddle put a griddle in the middle of 
the table. * 

ter 

Peter, the butter is better, but the water is bitter. 
Sy s (z) 

This is his business. 

-mg, -ink 

I think he will bring that thing and fling it over the 
brink. 

Voiceless consonants followed by -ed 
They watched and walked and talked, and talked and 
walked and watched. 


xxxviii Introductory Note for the Teacher 



THE ALPHABET 

Capitals 

Small Letters 

Capitals 

A 

a 

N 

B 

b 

0 • 

C 

c 

P 

D 

d 

Q 

E 

e 

R 

F 

f 

S 

G 

g 

T 

H 

h 

U 

I 

i 

V 

J 

3 

w 

K 

k 

X 

L 

1 

Y 

M 

m 

Z 




THE NUMERALS 

# 

0 nought 

1 one 

2 two 

3 three 

f 4 four 

5 five 

6 six 

7 seven 

8 eight 

9 nine 


Small Letters 

n 

o 

P 

q 

r 

s 

t 

u 

V 

w 

X 

V 

z 


Introductory Note for the Teacher 


xxxix 


~(Z7 

Jy/yy>; znz ^nEzt. 


z£z3L 


:z2z 


y ^uy zt^z^zszz&zz. 


IzzSz. 








T^7- 


"r;v/?fy g T32^L 


IrtsV-LtyL 


a^y 


^2hdAd^ , 

^La / y a/J^^rugyn^^ 

.g^LdJ^LdJ^ 



^/l y Ay..— 








































Part One 







On the book and other phrases 


3 


ON THE BOOK AND OTHER PHRASES 


on the book 
on the box 
on the bottle 
on the basket 
on the pan 
on the table 


beside the book 
beside the box 
beside the bottle 
beside the basket 
beside the pan 
under the table 


into the book 
into the box 


under the book 
under the box 


into the bottle 
into the basket 
into the pan 


under the bottle 
under the basket 
under the pan 


1. What did Miss Miller do? 

Miss Miller put a book on the table. 

2. What did Miss Miller do? 

Miss Miller put a pencil into the box. 

3. What did Miss Miller do? 

Miss Miller put a book under the bottle. 

4. What did Miss Miller do? 

Miss Miller put a pan beside the basket. 

5. What did Miss Miller do? 

Miss Miller put a pan, a pen, and a pin into the box. 


1. Miss Miller put a pencil on the book and a pencil 
under the book. 

2. Miss Miller put a bottle into the basket, a pen into 
the pan, and a pin into the box. 

3. Miss Miller put a pan on the 'book, and a basket on 
the table beside the book. 

Miss Miller put a pen and a pencil on the table beside 
the pan, and a box and a bottle on the table beside 
the book. 


4. 




4 


Adjectives 


5. Miss Miller put a box on the table, a paper under 
the box, a pen into the box, and a pencil beside the 
box. 

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 

What is on the table? Where is the box? 

There is a box on it. It is on the table. 


What is under the box? 
There is a paper under it. 


Where is the paper? 
It is under the box. 


What is in the box? 
There is a pen in it. 


Where is the pen? 
It is in the box. 


What is beside the box? 
There is a pencil beside it. 


Where is the pencil? 
It is beside the box. 


ADJECTIVES 

big long black yellow thick 

little short white blue thin 

1. What did Anna do? 

Anna put a big bottle and a little bottle on the table. 

2. What did John do? 

John put a long pencil into the big box and a short 
pencil into the little box. 

3. What did Jane do? 

Jane put a black paper under the long box and a 
white paper on the short box. 

4. What did William do? 

William put a yellow pencil under the black paper. 

5. What did Sam do? 

Sam put a thick book beside the yellow paper and a 
thin book on the blue paper. 

1. Anna put a yellow pencil on the table beside the 
basket, and Jane put a short black pencil into the 
little box. 


Questions and answers 


5 


2. John put a long pen and a short pencil into the little 
basket, and Jane put the little basket on the table. 

3. William put a big, thick, blue book on the little, 
thin, white paper. 

4. Anna put a big long box on the table, Jane put a 
little yellow basket into the big long box, and John 
put a long, thick, black pencil into the yellow basket. 

5. William put a little white paper on the window-sill, 
John put a big black box on the table, and Anna 
put a big green book on the chair. 

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 

1 — Who put the box on the table? 

Miss Miller. 

Who put the pen into the box? 

Jane did. 

Who put the long box on the floor? 

Sam. 

2— Where is the box? 

It is on the table. 

What is in it? 

There is a pen in it. 

Who put the pen into the box? 

Miss Miller. 

3 — What shall I put into the box? 

You may put a pan into it. 

What shall I put under it? 

You may put a paper under it. 

What shall I put on it? 

You may put a book on it. 

What shall I put beside it? 

You may put a basket beside it. 


6 


Plurals 


PLUPALS 


Singular Number 

Plural Number 

book 

books 

'box 

boxes 

bottle 

bottles 

basket 

baskets 

pan 

pans 

pen 

pens 

pin 

pins 

pencil 

pencils 

table 

tables 

chair 

chairs 

window-sill 

window-sills 


The verb be 

Singular Number Plural Number 

is are 


The book is on the table. 

Is the book on the table? 
Yes, it is. 

No, it is not. 

There is a book on the 
table. 

Is there a book on the 
table ? 

Yes, there is. 

No, there is not. 

Where is the book? 

It is on the table. 


The books are on the table. 

Are the books on the table? 
Yes, they are. 

No, they are not. 

There are books on the 
table. 

Are there books on the 
table ? 

Yes, there are. 

No, there are not. 

Where are the books? 

They are on the table. 


Sentences 


7 


Is there a box on the 
table ? 

Yes, there is. 

Is there a pen in it? 

No, there is not, but there 
is a pencil in it. 

Is the pencil long? 

No, it is not long; it is 
short. 

Is the box big? 

No, it is not big; it is 
little. 


Are there boxes on the 
table ? 

Yes, there are. 

Are there pens in them? 

No, there are not, but there 
are pencils in them. 

Are the pencils long? 

No, they are not long; they 
are short. 

Are the boxes big? 

No, they are not big; they 
are little. 


1. Anna put big white papers into the little baskets 
on the window-sill. 

2. Jane put one pencil into the box on the chair, and 
two pencils into the box on the table. 

3. Sam put pans, pens, and pins into the boxes on the 
table. 

4. The little green book is in the box on the chair, and 
the big green books are in the box on the floor. 

5. William put two pans on the table, and Anna put 
pens into the pans. 

6. There is a little green box on the floor, and there 
are little blue boxes in the little green box. 

7. The books are on the table, the pens are in the box 
on the window-sill, and the papers are in the basket 
on the chair. 

8. There are long w r hite boxes on the table, little blue 
books on the window-sill, and big black boxes on 
the floor under the table. 


8 


A pi$ce of 


9. Jane put little white boxes on the table, little black 
• pencils into the white boxes, and papers beside the 
boxes. 

10. There is a box on the chair, and there are pens in 
it. Jane put one pen into the box, and John put 
two into it. 

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 

What shall I do? 

You may take pens from the box. 

Where shall I put them? 

You may put them into the basket. 

Where shall I put the box? 

You may put it on the chair. 

What shall I put into it? 

You may put three pencils into it. 

A PIECE OF 


a piece of paper 

a piece of cloth 

a piece of string 

a piece of rubber 

a piece of wood 

a piece of wire 

a piece of glass 

a piece of coal 

a piece of leather 

a piece of tin 

Singular Number 

Plural Numb 


a piece of paper pieces of paper 

a piece of string pieces of string 

1. Jane put a piece of paper under the book on the 
table. 

2. John took a piece of paper from the basket on the 
window-sill. 

3. Sam put a piece of wood on the table beside the 
piece of paper. 


Sentences. Questions and answers 


9 


4. Mr. Jones put a piece of glass and a piece of leather 
into the big box on the window-sill. 

5. Mrs. Jones took a piece of leather from the big 
basket, and a piece of cloth from the little basket. 

6. Miss Jones put pieces of wire on the chairs beside 
the door, and pieces of coal on the chairs beside the 
table. 

7. Rose took pieces of tin from the little box, pieces of 
paper from the big box, and pieces of cloth from the 
basket. 

8. William put a piece of rubber, a piece of paper, and 
a piece of glass into the little white box on the chair. 

9. Jane put pieces of wood into the box, and John took 
them from it. John put pieces of tin into the basket, 
and Jane took them from it. 

10. Mr.and Mrs. Jones took pieces of string from the 
little box on the chair, and pieces of paper from the 
long wooden box under the table. 


QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 

Are the pieces of cloth in the basket? 

No, they are not; they are in the box. 

Where is the box? 

It is on the window-sill. 

Where are the pieces of leather? 

They are in the box, too. 

Who put the cloth and the leather into the 
box? 

Jane put the cloth into it, and Anna put 
the leather into it. 


10 


Pronouns 


PRONOUNS 


Personal Pronouns 


Singular Number Plural Number 


First Person 
Second Person 
Third Person 


I 

you 

he, she, it 

Possessive Pronouns 


we 

you 

they 


First Person 
Second Person 
Third Person 


Singular Number 
my 
your 

his, her, its 


Plural Number 
our 
your 
their 


Third Person—Masculine Gender he, his 

Third Person—Feminine Gender she, her 

Third Person—Neuter Gender it, its 


Singular Number 
I put my pen into the box. 

You put your pen into the box. 
He put his pen into the box. 
She put her pen into the box. 


Plural Number 

We put our pens into the box. 

You put your pens into the box. 

They put their pens into the box. 

1. I put my box on the table, and you put your pen 
into it. 

2. You put your pen, and he put his paper, into my 
basket. 

3. She put her piece of paper under his book. 

4. We put our pencils into our pockets, and they put 
their pencils into their boxes. 


Sentences. Questions and answers 


11 


5. She took her piece of cloth and my piece of leather 
from the basket on the chair. 

6. Your boxes are on the table, and our pens and pencils 
are in them. 

7. We put her books on the chair beside the window, 
and his books on the chair beside the door. 

8. You and I put our pens on the table, and he and she 
put their pens into the box on the table. 


QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 

1—Where did I put my pen? 

You put your pen into your pocket. 

Where did he put his pencil? 

He put his pencil into his box. 

Where did we put our papers? 

We put our papers on our table. 

Where did they put their books? 
They put their books on their table. 


2—What did you do? 

I put a box and a basket on the table. 

What did he do? 

He put a pencil into the box. 

What did she do? 

She took the pencil from the box. 

What did we do? 

We put pens into the basket. 

What did they do? 

They took the pens from the basket. 


12 A piece of cotton cloth 

A PIECE OF COTTON CLOTH 
a piece of cotton cloth 
a piece of woolen cloth 
a piece of silk cloth 
a piece of linen cloth 

a long piece of cotton cloth 
a long piece of bine cotton cloth. 

1. Mary took her piece of cotton cloth from the basket 
and put my piece of woolen cloth into it. 

2. Mrs. Miller put my little piece of linen cloth into her 
big box, and I put her big piece of yellow silk cloth 
into my box. 

3. Harry took his long pieces of red woolen cloth from 
the basket, and William took our short pieces of silk 
cloth from our little white boxes. 

4. Mrs. Wilson took your long pieces of black cotton 
cloth and my long pieces of yellow silk cloth from 
our boxes. 

5. John put your little piece of white cotton string into 
his box, and my long piece of red paper into his 
basket. 

6. Harry took our little pieces of thin paper and put 
them under the book on my table, and I put them on 
your table. 


QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 
Where did you get the piece of cotton cloth? 

I got it in your box. 

Where did you get the piece of white paper? 

I got it on the table. 

Where did he get his pieces of linen cloth? 
He got them in Mary’s box. 

Where did Anna get her pieces of woolen cloth? 
She got them in the box on the window-sill. 


Tin box, Wooden box, Paper box 


13 


TIN BOX, WOODEN BOX, PAPER BOX 

1. Harry put a little piece of white paper into my tin 
box. 

2. Henry put a long piece of blue paper into your 
wooden box. 

3. James put a long thin piece of blue paper into your 
paper box. 

4. Prank put a long piece of thin wire into your wooden 
box, and a short piece of thick wire into your tin box. 

5. Sarah put pieces of paper into the paper box, pieces 
of tin into the tin box, and pieces of wood into the 
wooden box. 

6. Sam put a big paper box on the table, and I put a 
little tin box into the big paper box. 

7. Helen put a tin box and a paper box on the chair 
beside the table, and a little wooden box on the floor 
beside the chair. 

8. Tom put our little white paper boxes on their tables, 
and their big wooden boxes on our tables. 

9. Lucy put a tin box on the chair, a paper box on the 
table, and a wooden box on the window-sill; then she 
put my pin into the tin box, your pen into the 
paper box, and her pan into the wooden box. 

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 

How many pencils are in the tin box? 

There are three brown ones and a red one. 

How many pencils are in the wooden box? 

There are none in it. # 

How many pencils did you take from the tin box ? 

I took one. 

How many are there in it now? 

There are three there now. 


14 


On the end of the table 


ON THE END OF THE TABLE 

on the end of the table 
on the side of the table 
on the corner of the table 
in the center of the table 

1. Mr. Miller put the boy’s pencil on the end of the 
table. 

2. Mrs. Miller put her pencil and her books on the side 
of the table. 

3. Miss Miller put her pen and Mary’s paper on the 
corner of the table. 

4. Harry Miller put a little brown basket in the center 
of the table. 

5. Charles put his pen on the end of the table beside 
the blue book. 

6. Jane put a bottle on the side of the table beside the 
tin box. 

7. Mary took a little piece of thin paper from the box 
on the side of the table; then she put the box on 
the end of the table. 

8. Frank put a chair at the end of the table, and Harry 
put two chairs at the side of the table. 

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 

Where shall I get a pencil? 

Get one in the box on the end of the table. 

Where will Henry get one? 

He may get one in the same box. 

Where shall we get paper? 

Get some in the box in the center of the table. 

Where shall we get chairs? 

Get them in the corner of the other room. 


Put it, Put them, Took it, Took them 


15 


PUT IT, PUT THEM, TOOK IT, TOOK THEM 

1. John took Mary’s pencil from the box, and put it 
on the end of the table. 

2. Jane put a pen on the side of the table, and John 
took it. 

3. William took a box and a pan from the table, and 
put them on the chair. 

4. I took a long piece of green string from Jane’s box, 
and put it around my books. 

5. Mr. Green took five little bottles from Tom’s box, 
and put them in the center of the table. 

6. Pie took his pencil from his pocket, and put it on 
the table between the book and the box. 

7. Pie took the chair from the side of the table, and 
put it between the window and the door. 

8. Harry put a piece of glass and a piece of wire into 
the box on the table, and Sam took them from it. 

9. She took the pins from the basket, and put them 
into the box on the table; then she took the box from 
the table, and put it on the chair. 

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 

What did you do with the tin box? 

I put it on the end of the table. 

What did he do with her pens? 

He put them into the wooden box. 

What did she do with the books? 

She took them from the table, and put them 
into the cupboard. 

What did he do with the chair? 

He took it from the end of the table, and put 
it at the side of the table. 


16 


Each, Inch, Edge, All, Whole 


EACH, INCH, EDGE, ALL, WHOLE 

1. James put a match on each end of the table. 

2. Henry put two matches on each side of the table. 

3. Anna took matches from each side of the table, and 
put them on the end of the table. 

4. Joseph took six matches from the tin box, and put 
one on each end of the table and one on each comer 
of the table. 

5. Harry put a match on each side of the table, one 
inch from the edge. 

6. Sam put a broken match on each side of the table, 
and two whole matches on each end of the table. 

7. Mary took all the whole matches from the wooden 
box, and put them into the tin box. 

8. Frank took all the whole matches from the wooden 
box on the table, and put them into the tin box 
in the cupboard; then he took all the broken matches 
from the wooden box, and put them into the basket 
under the table. 

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 

Are there boxes on the table? 

Yes, there is a box on each end. 

Are there whole pens in the boxes? 

No, there are not; there is a broken pen in 
each box. 

Are all the pens on the table broken? 

Three are broken, and five are whole. 

Are the five whole pens three inches long? 

The whole pens are six inches long. 

Are they all your pens? 

No, they are not; the one on the edge of the 
table is mine. 


The verb have 


17 


THE VERB HAVE 
Affirmative Forms 


I have a book. 

You have a book. 

He has a book. 

She has a book. 

Mr. Smith has a book. 

Negative 

I do not have a book. 

You do not have a book. 

He does not have a book. 
She does not have a book. 
Mr. Smith does not have a 
book. 


We have books. 

You have books. 

They have books. 

They have books. 

Mr. and Mrs. Smith have 
books. 

Forms 

We do not have books. 
You do not have books. 
They do not have books. 
They do not have books. 
Mr. and Mrs. Smith do not 
have books. 


1. I have a book, and John has a book; but Mary 
does not have one. 

2. Mr. Smith has a new book, but Mrs. Smith has an 
old one. 

3. We do not have pencils and papers, but they do. 

4. He does not have a box, she does not have a basket; 
but I have both a box and a basket. 

5. They do not have pencils and paper; but John 
has a pen, and Mary has ink. 

6. You do not have a little green book, but you have 
a big red one. . 

7. Jane has a long red pen, but she does not have a 
pencil. 

8. Mr. Smith has two books, and Mrs. Smith has one. 
They each have two papers, but they do not have 
pencils. 


18 


The verb have, interrogative forms 


QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 

What have you in your pocket? 

I have a good new pencil in it. 

What has John in his pocket? 

He has two short broken pencils in his pocket. 

What have you in your hand? 

I have a little piece of wire. 

What has Mary in her hand? 

She has a long piece of string. 


Interrogative Forms 


Singular 
Have I a book ? 

Have you a book? 

Has he a book? 

Has she a *book ? 

Has Mr. Smith a book? 

Do I have a book? 

Do you have a book? 
Does he have a book? 
Does she have a book? 
Does John have a book? 


Plural 

Have we books? 

Have you books? 

Have they books? 

Have they books? 

Have Mr. and Mrs. Smith 
books ? 

Do we have books? 

Do you have books? 

Do they have books? 

Do they have books? 

Do John and Mary have 
books ? 


QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 

1—-Have you my book? 

No, I do not have it; John has it. 
Has he my pencil? 

Yes, he has it. 

Have John and Mary our books? 
Yes, they have them. 

Does Mary have, paper? 

Yes, she has three pieces. 

Do John and Mary have pens? 
John has, but Mary does not. 


This, That, These, Those 


19 


2— Have you a pen? 

Yes, I have one. 

Has Harry one ? 

No, he has none. 

Have you and Harry pencils? 

Harry has one, but I have none. 

Has Harry a long pencil? 

Yes, he has a long one. 

Does Harry have paper? 

Yes, he has much paper. 

3— Do you have a tin box? 

Yes, I do. 

Do you have matches in your tin box? 

No, I do not; I have pens in it. 

You have a paper box, have you not? 

Yes, I have. 

John has a long pencil, has he not? 

No, he does not have a long one, but he has 
a short one. He has a short pen too. 

THIS, THAT, THESE, THOSE 

1. Harry took the book from this end of the table, and 
put it on that end. 

2. Sam put a big table in this end of the room and a 
little table in that end. 

3. This book is blue, and that book is red; these pens 
are red, and those pens are black. 

4. There are whole matches in these boxes, but there 
are broken matches in those boxes. 

5. He took these broken pencils from this box, and 
put them into that tin box. 


20 


Possessive pronouns. Adverbs here and there 


6. Beside each of these books there is a paper, and 
beside each of those books there is a pencil. 

7. This is a tin box, that is a wooden box. Put those 
pens into this tin box, and these papers into that 
wooden box. 

8. On each end of this table is a box, and on each end 
of that table is a basket. 

9. They took all the matches from this broken box, and 
put them into the whole box. 


QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 


What is this? 
This is a pen. 

What are these? 
These are pencils. 

What is that? 
That is a box. 

What are those? 
Those are books. 


Is this my paper? 

Yes, it is. 

Are those your pens? 
No, they are not. 

Is that her pencil? 
Yes, it is. 

Are those his boxes? 
No, they are not. 

Is this his book? 

Yes, this is his book. 


POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS USED WITHOUT NOUNS 
THE ADVERBS HERE AND THERE 


First Person 
Second Person 
Third Person 
Third Person 

This is my book. 
This book is mine. 


Singular Number 
mine 
yours 
his 
hers 


Plural Number 
ours 
yours 
theirs 
theirs 


These are our books. 
These books are ours. 


Sentences. Questions and answers 


21 


This is your book. 
This book is yours. 


These are your books. 
These books are yours. 


This is his book. 


These are their books. 
These books are theirs. 


This book is his. 


This is her book. 
This book is hers. 


These are their books. 
These books are theirs. 


1. My book is here on this table, and yours is there on 
that table. 

2. We put our papers here, but yours is not here. 

3. There are four pens on this table; yours is here, his 
is here, hers is here, and mine is here too. 

4. They put all the books into the cupboard; yours, 
his, hers, mine, and theirs. 

5. Her box is broken, but yours and mine are whole. 

6. These books are not mine; they are yours. Those 
books are not yours; they are mine. 

7. These are your books, and these papers are yours too. 
Those are not your pencils, and those pens are not 
yours either. 

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 

1 —Whose books are those on the chair? 

They are mine. 

Whose are those on the window-sill? 

They are Frank’s. 

Are those pens on the table yours? 

No, tliAy are not mine; they are John’s. 

Whose pencil is this in my book? 

It is his. 

Whose are those in your book? 

They are ours, Mary’s and mine. 


22 


Indefinite nouns ( something, etc.) 


2—Which is your book? 

This one, here, is mine; not that one. 

Which is Henry's? 

The little blue one is his. 

Which are our pens? 

Those in the box are ours. 

Which is your box, the little one or the 
big one? 

The big one is mine. 

Where are our pens? 

Ours are here on this table. 


INDEFINITE NOUNS 

something anything everything nothing 

1. There is something in the basket, but there is nothing 
in the box. 

2. He did not put anything into the tin box, but he 
put something into the paper box. 

3. She put something into one box, but nothing into 
the other. 

4. They took everything from the table; then they gave 
something to each student. 

5. Take everything from this table, John, but do not 
put anything on that table. 

6. Everything is here; books, pencils, and papers. 

7. There is nothing on the table by the window, but 
there is something on the table by the door. 

8. I took everything from the little table and then I put 
something into the box under the table. 


Sentences. Questions and answers 


23 


some one any one every one no one 

some person any person every person no person 

somebody anybody everybody nobody 

1. There is nobody on the chair by the table, but there 
is somebody on the chair by the window. 

2. Every person took pens and paper from the table, 
but no person took anything from the cupboard. 

3. Every one has his book, but no one has a pencil and 
paper. 

4. No one took my book, but some one took my pen. 

5. Every one may get a pencil and paper and write 
his lesson. 

6. Every one has a pen, but no one has a pencil. 


QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 

Is there anything in that box? 

Yes, there is something in it. 

Did any person take anything from it? 
Yes, some one took a pen. 

Did any one put anything into it? 

Yes, some one put two pins into it. 

Who took everything from the basket? 

I took nothing; but he took something, 
and those boys took everything else. 

Some person took the chairs away. Who 
did it? 

Every person here took a chair and put it 
at the other table. 


24 Objective forms of personal pronouns and of who 

OBJECTIVE FORMS OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS 
AND OF THE PRONOUN WHO 



Personal Pronouns 



Singular Number 

Plural Number 

First Person 

me 

us 

Second Person 

you 

you 

Third Person 

him 

them 

Third Person 

her 

them 

Third Person 

it 

them 


1. Mary took a pen from the table and gave it to me; 
then she gave the box to you. 

2. She took the basket from him and gave it to her. 

3. The teacher took the baskets from the cupboard and 
gave them to us. 

4. She put a box of pens on the table; then she took 
three pens from it and gave them to them. 

5. She took the pins from them and the pens from us. 

6. She put the basket on the table; then she took some¬ 
thing from it. 

The objective form of Who is Whom 

1. To whom did you give the pen? 

I gave it to .her. 

2. For whom did you get the paper? 

I got it for John. 

3. From whom did you take the boxes? 

I took them from Mary and Jane. 

4. Beside whom did you put your chair? 

I put it beside him. 


Sentences 


25 


5. Here is the boy to whom I gave a book. 

6. There are the girls from whom we took the books. 

7. The man to whom I gave the chair is not here. 

8. He is the one for whom I got the paper. 

9. This is not the man from whom I got my pencils. 
The man from whom I got them is not here. 

10. The man for whom I got this big wooden box is in 
the other room. 

11. The teacher to whom I gave the box of pens gave a 
pen to each student here. 

12. The student from whom I took the piece of wire is 
the student beside whom I put my chair. 

13. Here is the boy to whom I gave the paper, and there 
is the girl to whom I gave the piece of silk cloth. 

14. Here is the man from whom John took the basket, 
and there is the man to whom he gave it. 


26 


Appendix to Part One 


APPENDIX TO PART ONE 

Miscellaneous Expressions 

Jane: How do you do, Mary ? 

Mary: How do you do, how are you? 

Jane: I am well, thank you. 

Mary: I am glad to see you. Have a chair beside me. 

Jane: Thank you. 

Mary : You are welcome. 

Jane: Will you lend me a pencil, please? 

Mary: Yes, I have two. 

Jane: How much did this pencil cost? 

Mary: It cost five cents. 

Jane: What did you pay for your pen? 

Mary: I paid ten cents. 

Jane: May I have a piece of paper? 

Mary: Surely. 

Jane: I am much obliged. What time is it? 

Mary: It is eight o’clock. 

Jane: Pronounce this word for me, please. 

Mary: I cannot; ask the teacher to pronounce it. 

Jane: What does this word mean? 

Mary: Take my dictionary and look it up. 

Jane: What is the price of a good dictionary? 

Mary: I paid two dollars for this one. 

Jane: May I use your eraser? 

Mary: Yes, here it is. 

Jane: Write this word for me, please. 

Mary: Certainly. 

Jane: What time is it now? 

Mary: It is a quarter to nine. 


Miscellaneous expressions 


27 


Jane: Let us go home at half past nine. 

Mary: All right. 

J ane: I do not understand this word. 

Mary: Take my dictionary again. 

J ane : Thank you. I like your dictionary. 

Mary: You may use it every day. 

Jane: Tell me how to spell the word they. 

Mary: T-h-e-y , they. It is difficult to spell, and it is 
difficult to pronounce. 

Jane: It is late, let us go home. 

Mary: Wait a minute, I have not finished my lesson. 

Jane: All right, I shall wait for you. 

Mary: I shall be ready to go in five minutes. 

Jane: It is a beautiful evening; let us take a walk be¬ 
fore we go home. 

Mary: Very well, I should like to do that. 

Jane: Good-by, Miss Miller. 

Mary: Good evening, Miss Miller. 

Miss Miller: Good-by, girls, come again. 

Jane: Here comes Miss Smith. Do you know her? 
Mary: No, I have never met her. 

Jane: Miss White, have you met Miss Smith? 

Mary: How do you do? 

Miss Smith: How do you do? 















































































Part Two 


















































The expression of present time. 


31 


THE EXPRESSION OF PRESENT TIME 


Note.— 

-In teaching tense 
indicate time. 

forms use 

the calendar 

I write 

I study 

I walk 

I buy 

I read 

I listen 

I sit 

I take 

I speak 

I eat 

I stand 

I give 

I come 

I go 

Hook 

I get 


CONJUGATION OF THE VERB ‘ WRITE , IN THE PRESENT TENSE 


Affirmative Forms 


Singular Number Plural Number 


First Person 
Second Person 
Third Person 
Third Person 
Third Person 
Third Person 


I write. 

You write. 
He writes. 
She writes. 
John writes. 
It writes. 


We write. 

You write. 

They write. 

They write. 

John and Mary write. 
They write. 


1. To-day I sit here at this table and write. 

2. He sits there at that table and writes. 

3. I sit and read and write; and he sits and reads 
and writes. 

4. She speaks to me, and I listen to her; then I speak 
to her, and she listens to me. 

5. John goes to the window and looks at the people on 
the street, and I go to the door and look at the 
pupils in the other room. 

6. Lucy speaks, reads, and writes the Italian language 
well, and I speak, read, and write the English 
language well. 


32 


The expression of present time. 


7. This is a good pen; it writes well. This pencil also 
writes well. 

8. We study at the table, and they go to the blackboard 
and write; then we go to the blackboard, and they 
study at the table. 

9. Jane took a book from the cupboard, and now she 
sits at the table in the corner of the room and studies. 

10. Miss Miller talks to us and we listen to her; then we 
write sentences on the blackboard, and Miss Miller 
reads them. 

11. John goes to the big box and takes a long pencil 
from it; then he goes to his teacher and gets a piece 
of paper from her. 

12. John gets a chair and puts it at the end of the table, 
and I get a chair and put it at the side of the table. 
We sit on these chairs and talk. 


Negative Forms 


I do not write. 

You do not write. 

He does not write. 
She does not write. 
John does not write. 
It does not write. 


We do not write. 

You do not write. 

They do not write. 

They do not write. 

John and Mary do not write. 
They do not write. 


1. I do not write, but you write. 

2. We do not take pencils, 'but they take them. We 
take pens. 

3. You speak English well, but he and I do not. 

4. Lucy does not write now, because she has no pencil. 

5. Anna does not stand and write on the blackboard, 
but she sits and listens to you. 


Interrogative forms. The auxiliary can 


33 


Interrogative Forms 


Do I write? 

Do you write? 
Does he write? 
Does she write? 
Does John write? 
Does it write? 


Do we write? 

Do you write? 

Do they write? 

Do they write? 

Do John and Mary write? 
Do they write? 


Question: Do you speak English well, John? 
Answer : Yes, I do. I speak slowly and distinctly. 


Question: Does Mary speak English? 

Answer: No, she does not; she speaks Greek. 


Question: Do Sam and Henry study in this school? 
Answer: Sam does, but Henry does not. 


Question: Do Sam and Henry speak well? 

Answer: Sam speaks well; he speaks slowly and dis¬ 

tinctly, but Henry does not speak well; he 
speaks quickly and indistinctly. 


Question: Mary has a pen. Does it write well? 
Answer: No, it does not; but her pencil writes well. 


THE AUXILIARY ‘CAN* USED TO EXPRESS ABILITY 

Affirmative Forms 

I can write. We can write. 

You can write. You can write. 

He, she, it can write. They can write. 


Negative Forms 

I cannot write. We cannot write. 

You cannot write. You cannot write. 

He, she, it cannot write. They cannot write. 


34 


The expression of present time. 


1. I can read and write well, but I cannot speak well. 

2. I can come to school at nine o ’clock, but I cannot come 
at two o’clock. 

3. I can buy a hat for ten dollars, but I cannot buy a 
house for that sum of money. 

4. I can eat my breakfast at eight o’clock. I can come 
to school at nine, and I can go home at twelve. 

5. I cannot give you a pencil, because I have none. I 
have two pieces of paper, and I can give you one of 
them. 

6. I can write well, but he cannot; he can speak well, 
but I cannot. 

7. I cannot understand Peter, because he speaks quick¬ 
ly and indistinctly; but I can understand Jane be¬ 
cause she speaks slowly and distinctly. 

8. He can buy the black hat for six dollars, and I can 
buy this brown one for five dollars. We have the 
money in our pockets, and we can buy the hats and 
take them home with us. 


Interrogative Forms 


Can I write ? 
Can you write? 
Can he write? 


Can we write ? 
Can you write? 
Can they write ? 


1. Can John read and write well? 

He cannot write, but he can read. 

2. Can he come to school? 

He can come two days a week. 

3. He can speak English, can he not? 

Yes, he can speak a little. 

4. Can you come to school with him? 

’No, I cannot come to this school, but I can go to 
another school. 


Commands and exhortations 


35 


THE AUXILIARY ‘MAY* USED IN ASKING PERMISSION 

1. May I sit at this table to write? 

Yes, you may. 

2. May I take this book? 

Certainly you may. 

3. May he and I have pens, please? 

No, you cannot; but you may have pencils. 

4. May I look at your paper? 

Surely; here it is. 

5. May Mary and I go home now? 

Yes, you may go. 

COMMANDS AND EXHORTATIONS 

Imperative Sentences 

1. Sit here, Mary, and write your lesson. 

2. Come here, William, get a pencil and a book, and 
give them to me. 

3. Get a piece of chalk, go to the blackboard and write; 
then come to this table, get a pencil and a piece of 
paper, and write at the table. 

4. Take your book and go to that table and study; get 
paper and a pencil in the cupboard. 

5. Read and speak slowly and distinctly. 

6. Be quiet, please. 

7. Keep quiet, please. 

8. Do not go now. 

9. Do not write on that paper; write on this one. 

10. Do not sit at that table; sit at this one. 

11. Do not speak Italian; speak English. 


36 


The expression of present time. 


Let used to express commands and exhortations 

1. Let me have your pen, please. 

2. Let me write my name on this paper. 

3. Let John and me read your book. 

4. Let them come to this table to study. 

5. Let them get chairs and sit here. 

6. Let him use your pen; his is broken. 

7. Let us go to the post office to get the mail; then let % 
us come home and write letters. 

8. Let us study for an hour; then let us go for a walk. 
Let us look at the store windows before we come in. 

9. Let them sit beside that table, and let us sit beside 

this one. Let them talk, and let us study. 

10. Let us get our friends and take them to a store to 
buy books; then let us take our friends to school with 
us. 

11. Let us not talk, but let us study hard. 

12. Let us not give her a pen, but let us give her a pencil. 

13. Let us not sit here, but let us take our chairs to the 
window and sit there. 

What does Mary do? 

She sits at the table and writes. 

What do we do? 

We sit here and talk. You talk, and I listen 
to you; then I talk, and you listen to me. 
What does Henry do? 

He stands beside our table and looks at us, 
and listens to us. 

What do Anna and Sam do? 

They study. Sam writes, and Anna reads. 

What does Rose do? 

She studies, too. 


John and Jane at Lunch 


37 


JOHN AND JANE AT LUNCH 

John goes to a restaurant every day to get his lunch. 
He takes his sister Jane with him, and they go to a 
restaurant at the corner of this street and Fifth Avenue. 
They sit at a little table by the window in the corner of 
the room and eat. They buy bread and butter, a little 
meat, some coffee, and some ice cream. Jane eats and 
John talks; then John eats, and Jane talks. Then Henry, 
a schoolmate, comes in. He gets a chair and sits at the 
table with Jane and John; and they all talk. They go 
out from the school house at twelve o’clock and come in 
again at half past one, because they stay at school all day. 


Where do John and Jane eat lunch? 

They go to a restaurant every day. 

At which restaurant do they eat? 

They eat at the one at the corner of this street 
and Fifth Avenue. 

Where do they sit? 

They sit at a little table in the corner of the 
room. 

What do they eat? 

Bread and butter, a little meat, some coffee, 
and some ice cream. 

With whom does Henry eat? 

He eats with Jane and John. 

Does he eat at the table with them? 

Yes, he does. 

When do they go out to lunch? 

They go out at twelve and come in at half 
past one. 

What do they do here? 

They study all day. 


38 


The expression of present time. 



Forms for Use 

in Making Sentences 

Sentence: 

I write lessons 

here to-day. 


I write 

(what) lessons. 

.(where) here. 

.(when) to-day. 

I study 

(what). 

..(where). 

(when). 

I read 

(what). 

..(where). 

.(when). 

I get 

(what.)_ 

.('where)__ 

(when). 

Sentence: 

I write lessons well here. 


I write 

(what) lessons. 

.(how) well. 

(where) here. 

I study 

(what). 

..(how). 

(■where)..-. 

I get 

('what')_ 

(how)_ 

(where) 

Sentence: 

I stand beside the table now. 


I stand 

(where) beside the table (when) 

i now. 

I sit 

(where). 

.(when) 


I come 

(where). 

.(when) 



I look at you. 

I look at him. 

I look at the book. 


T listen to you. 

I listen to him. 

I listen to the teacher. 


Do I.? How 

What do 1. 9 Can 

Where do T May 

When do I 


do I . 9 I do not ... 

I . p I cannot .... 

I .? Let us not. 

































Verbs, affirmative, negative and interrogative 39 


Verbs. Present Tense 


Affirmative 

Negative 

Interrogative 

I write. 

I do not write. 

Do I write? 

I read. 

I do not read. 

Do I read ? 

I speak. 

I do not speak. 

Do I speak ? 

I come. 

I do not come. 

Do I come? 

I study. 

I do not study. 

Do I study ? 

I listen. 

I do not listen. 

Do I listen? 

I eat. 

I do not eat. 

Do I eat? 

I go. 

I do not go. 

Do I go? 

I walk. 

I do not walk. 

Do 1 walk ? 

I sit. 

I do not sit. 

Do I sit? 

I stand. 

I do not stand. 

Do I stand ? 

I look. 

I do not look. 

Do I look? 

I buy. 

1 do not buy. 

Do I buy ? 

I take. 

I do not take. 

Do I take? 

I give. 

I do not give. 

Do I give ? 

I get. 

I do not get. 

Do I get ? 

Where {at, to) : 

When: 



here 
there 
in school 
in the box 
to a store 
to a restaurant 
beside the table 
at this table 
under the book 
at home 


now 
to-day 
this week 
this month 
this year 

Ho IV: 

well 

indistinctly 

quickly 

carefully 

carelessly 


40 


The expression of future time. 


THE EXPRESSION OF FUTURE TIME 

Reference matter to be used by the learner in con¬ 
nection with the illustrative sentences which follow. The 
new forms are printed in italics. 


VERBS. FUTURE TENSE 


Present Tense (now) 

Future Tense (to-morrow) 

I write. 

I shall write. 

I read. 

I shall read. 

I speak. 

I shall speak. 

I come. 

I shall come. 

I study. 

I shall study. 

I listen. 

I shall listen. 

I eat. 

I shall eat. 

I go. 

I shall go. 

I walk. 

1 shall walk. 

I sit. 

I shall sit. 

I stand. 

I shall stand. 

I look. 

I shall look. 

I buy. 

I shall buy. 

I take. 

I shall take. 

I give. 

I shall give. 

I learn. 

I shall learn. 

Ido. 

I shall do. 

I get. 

I shall get. 

I meet. 

I shall meet. 

I send. 

I shall send. 

I stay. 

I shall stay. 

I visit. 

I shall visit. 


to study 
to buy 
to take 


INFINITIVES 

to write 
to read 
to speak 


to get 
to give 
to look 


Time expressions. Conjugation of verb write 


41 


TIME EXPRESSIONS 


to-day 

this month 

to-morrow 

next month 

day after to-morrow 

month after next 

this week 

this year 

next week 

next year 

week after next 

year after next 

all day 

in the morning 

all night 

early in the morning 

all month 

in the forenoon 

all year 

at noon 

every day 

in the afternoon 

daily 

in the evening 

every week 

at night 

weekly 

in the fore part of the night 

often 

at midnight 

all week 

in the after part of the night 

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB 

‘WRITE’ IN THE FUTURE TENSE 


(Simple Futurity ) 
Affirmative Forms 


I shall write. We shall write. 

You will write. You will write. 

He will write. They will write. 

1. To-morrow I shall come here to study the English 
language. 

2. Day after to-morrow my sister will come to school. 
We shall sit at this table and study. We shall stay 
from ten o’clock until twelve. 

3. I shall work all day to-day, and in the evening 1 
shall go to see my brother. 


42 


The expression of future time. 


4. Every day next week he will go to work early in the 
morning, and he will come home early in the after¬ 
noon. 

5. We shall go to the park often next week, and we 
shall sit on the benches under the trees. 

6. John and Henry will get books; then they will come 
to this table to study. 

7. My brother will come to this school next year be¬ 
cause he wants to learn the English language. He 
wants to learn the English language because he 
wants to read English books. 

Negative Forms 

I shall not write. We shall not write. 

You will not write. You will not write. 

He will not write. They will not write. 

1. I shall study all day to-morrow; then I shall not 
study day after to-morrow, because I shall work that 
day. 

2. John will go to work in the fore part of the night, 
and James will go in the after part of the night. 

3. The men will work all day and all night; then they 
will not go to work for two days. 

4. He will not come to see me early in the morning, 
but he will come late in the afternoon. 

5. I shall not go to the theater this week, but I shall 
go once or twice next week. 

6. He will meet his father, and they will come here to 
see you. They will stay a day or two with you. 


Interrogative forms. Names of days 


43 


Interrogative Forms 

Shall I write? Shall we write? 

Shall you write? Shall you write? 

Will he write? Will they write? 

1. Shall I write my letter now, or shall I write it to¬ 
morrow ? 

Write it now and send it to-morrow. 

2. Will John take it to the post office when he goes 
to work? 

Yes, he will take it for you. 

3. Shall you see John when he comes home this evening? 
No, I shall not see him; he will come home late in 
the night. 

4. Will he go to work early in the morning? 

No, he will not go early; he will go in the after¬ 
noon, for he works at night. 

5. Will he go to the post office to get the mail? 

Yes, he will. He goes every day, and he often gets 
letters. 

6. Will Sarah buy a story book when she goes to the 
store? 

No, she will not buy a story book, but she will buy 
a history of the United States. 


NAMES OF THE DAYS, TIME EXPRESSIONS 


Sunday Tuesday 

Monday Wednesday 

once a week 
on week days 
all the time 
now and then 
every other day 
again and again 
every day or two 


Thursday Saturday 

Friday 

sometimes 
no longer 
later 

as often as I can 
daily except Sunday 
whenever I can 
morning, noon, and night. 


44 


The expression of future time. 


1. On next Sunday I shall get my friends and take 
them to church. 

2. My brother will come to visit me on Monday, and 
we shall go to Harry's later in the week; perhaps, 
on Friday or Saturday. 

3. At nine o'clock on Wednesday I shall go to the rail¬ 
road station to meet my uncle and aunt. They will 
come here to stay a week but no longer. 

4. On the first Thursday of next month Peter will go 
to New York to visit his father, mother, and sister. 
He goes to see them as often as he can. 

5. When Mary goes home to-morrow, she will take her 
books with her. She studies whenever she can. 

6. I shall come to school to-morrow and stay two hours. 
I shall not stand and write on the blackboard for two 
hours, but I shall sit at my table and write some. 

7. Two weeks from next Friday, my friend will come to 
this school because he wants to learn to speak, to 
read, and to write the English language well. 

8. My friend studies morning, noon, and night. When 
he comes here, he will study his lessons again and 
again. 

9. When my brother comes to this country, we shall 
work on week days; and on Sundays, we shall go to 
church, and sometimes we shall visit our friends. 

10. Every day or two we shall take a walk in the park, 
and once or twice a month we shall go to the theater 
to see a good play. 

11. We shall visit you whenever we can, and now and 
then we shall write you a letter. 

12. When my two friends come to this city, one of them 
will work in a factory. He will work every other 
day. The other will work in a store, and he will 
work every day except Sunday. 


Common questions about persons 


45 


COMMON QUESTIONS ABOUT PERSONS 

What is your name? 

My name is Ross Martino. 

Where do you live? 

I live at number 1145 Fifth Avenue. 

From what country did you come? 

I came from Italy. 

When did you come to the United States? 

I came to the United States on June 14, 1910. 

Are you a citizen of the United States? 

Yes, I am. 

Is your father in this country? 

Yes, my father is here. 

Is your mother in this country? 

No, my mother is in Italy. 

How many sisters have you? 

I have no sisters. 

How many brothers have you? 

I have two here and one in Italy. 

How old are you? 

I am twenty-five to-day. 

Where do you work? 

I work in a store on Sixth Street. 

How many hours a day do you work? 

I work eight hours a day. 


46 


The expression of future time. 


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The learner will make sentences, using all persons and both numbers 


Verbs. Forms for making sentences 


47 


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FORMS FOR USE IN MAKING SENTENCES 


48 


The expression of future time. 


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To school, prepositional phrase; to, preposition; school, noun. 
To learn, infinitive; to, preposition; learn, verb. 










Verbs. Future Tense (Simple Futurity) 


Verbs. Forms for making sentences 


49 


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50 


The expression of future time 


A visitor 

Mr. Black’s son will come here next week. He will 
come early Friday morning and will stay with us for 
a day or two. He goes to school now in Boston; but 
when he comes here, he will buy a store somewhere in 
our city and will work in it every day. We shall give 
him a room in our house, and he can eat his meals 
at some other place. I shall write a letter and send it to 
him to-day. We shall meet him at the railroad station. 
We shall stand at the gate and look for him when the 
train comes in; then he will walk home with us. 

When will Mr. Black’s son come here? 

He will come next week. 

On what day? 

Early, Friday morning. 

Where will he stay? 

He will stay with us. 

Will he room and board with you? 

He will room here, but he will eat somewhere 
else. 

What does he do in Boston? 

He goes to school now. 

What will he do here? 

He will buy a store and work in it. 

Shall you meet him when he comes? 

Yes, we shall meet him at the station. 

Shall you write to him at Boston? 

I shall write to-day. 

Where shall you wait for him at the station? 

At the gate. 

Will he come home with you? 

Yes, he will walk home with us. 


The expression of past time. 


51 


THE EXPRESSION OF PAST TIME 

VERBS IN THE PAST TENSE. 

(Reference matter for the learner.) 


Present Tense 

I write 
I read 
I speak 
I come 
I study 
I listen 
I eat 
I go 
I walk 
I sit 
I stand 
I look 
I buy 
I take 
I give 
I see 
I send 
I work 
I get 
I stay 
I meet 
I learn 
I visit 
I want 
I talk 
I make 
I sell 
I receive 
I celebrate 
I live 
I pay 


Past Tense 

I ivrote 
I read 
I spoke 
I came 
I studied 
I listened 
I ate 
I ivent 
I walked 
I sat 
I stood 
I looked 
I bought 
I took 
I gave 
I saw 
I sent 
I worked 
I got 
I stayed 
I met 
I learned 
1 visited 
I wanted 
I talked 
T made 
1 sold 
I received 
I celebrated 
I lived 
I paid 


Future Tense 

I shall write 
I shall read 
I shall speak 
I shall come 
I shall study 
I shall listen 
I shall eat 
I shall go 
I shall walk 
I shall sit 
I shall stand 
I shall look 
I shall buy 
I shall take 
I shall give 
I shall see 
I shall send 
I shall work 
I shall get 
I shall stay 
I shall meet 
I shall learn 
I shall visit 
I shall want 
I shall talk 
I shall make 
I shall sell 
I shall receive 
I shall celebrate 
I shall live 
I shall pay 


52 The expression of past time. 


I spend 

I spent 

I shall spend 

I travel 

I traveled I shall travel 

I do 

I did 

I shall do 


TIME EXPRESSIONS 

to-day 


this month 

yesterday 


last month 

day before yesterday 

month before last 

three days ago 


three months ago 

this week 


this year 

last week 


last year 

week before last 


year before last 

three weeks ago 


three years ago 

several weeks ago 


one week ago 

one week ago 


one week ago last Monday 

at first 


from time to time 

at last 


when I have time 

every day or two 


when I am able 

every few days 


immediately 

once a week 


some time after 

occasionally 


once in a while 


CONJUGATION OF THE VERB ( WRITE ’, PAST TENSE 

Affirmative Forms 

I wrote. We wrote. 

Yon wrote. You wrote. 

He wrote. They wrote. 

Negative Forms 

I did not write. We did not write. 

Yon did not write. Yon did not write. 

He did not write. They did not write. 


Interrogative forms. Answers. 


53 


Interrogative Forms. Answers 


Did I write ?, 
Yes, yon wrote. 


Did we write? 
Yes, you wrote. 


Did you write? 
Yes, I wrote. 


Did you write? 
Yes, we wrote. 


Did he write? 
Yes, he wrote. 


Did they write? 
Yes, they wrote. 


1. Yesterday I sat at this table and wrote my lesson; 
to-day I sit here again and write. 

2. Day before yesterday I learned many new words, 
and I want to learn many more to-day. 

3. I met Will on the street three days ago, and I talked 
with him for a long time. I shall meet him to-day, 
and we shall talk again. 

4. Week before last I went to a store and saw two good 
books. I bought one. Now I want another book. 
I shall go to that store again and buy the other one. 

5. " Jane bought a piece of cloth last month, and some¬ 

time later she bought another piece. Next week she 
will make two new dresses for her little sister to 
wear to school. 

6. Three weeks ago last Monday I sold my house. When 
I get enough money, I shall buy another, a larger 
and better one. 

7. Several weeks ago I wrote a letter to my friends in 
Europe. One week ago I received an answer to this 
letter. I shall write again in a day or two. 

8. Last year I read many books; but this year I shall 
read many more, because I can read better now. I 
went to school all last year. 


54 


The expression of past time. 


9. Last night I went home at six o’clock. I made a 
good warm fire and sat down beside it to read. When 
my brothers came in, we talked for an hour and a 
half about American history. 

10. Two years ago two of my fellow-countrymen came to 
New York. Some time afterward another came. They 
stayed there a year; then they went to Chicago. They 
are there now, and each has a comfortable home. 

11. When I came to this country I could not speak one 
word of the English language. I went to school im¬ 
mediately and studied it. I did not work much, be¬ 
cause I wanted to go to school. Now I can under¬ 
stand almost everything I hear. 

12. Occasionally I go to the park. I went one evening 
last week. I met some friends from my native coun¬ 
try, and we spoke English; but once in awhile we 
spoke in our native language. 

13. Some time ago I stood at the window and looked at 
the people on the street. I saw a friend, and I 
went out and talked with him. We went to a 
restaurant and had something to eat; then we went 
to the theater and saw a good play and heard some 
good music. 


Did you write to your brother to-day? 

I did not write to-day, but I wrote last week. 

Did he go to New York last month? 

Yes, he went on the first of the month. 

Did he buy a house there? 

No, he did not buy one, but he rented one. 

Did he sell his house here? 

He sold it before he went away. 



Henry Met His Friends 


55 


HENRY MET HIS FRIENDS 

Henry went from his work early yesterday because 
he wanted to go to the railroad station to meet his 
friends who came from Europe last week. He met them 
in the early afternoon; and before he took them to his 
home, he took them to a restaurant to have lunch. 
After they had lunch, they went to Henry’s home, where 
they visited him and his family until the next day. 
Henry then took them to their uncle’s, where they will 
stay for a while. They will get work; and when they 
have enough money, they will rent a house and furnish 
it for themselves. 


What time did Henry go from work yesterday? 

He went early. 

Why did he go early? 

In order to meet his friends who came from 
Europe last week. 

Where did he meet them? 

He met them at the Pennsylvania Railroad 
station. 

Did he take them to his home at once? 

No, h^ first took them to a restaurant to have 
something to eat; and afterwards he took 
them to his home. 

How long did they stay at Henry’s? 

They stayed over night. 

Where did they go afterwards? 

Henry took them to their uncle’s. 

How long will they stay there? 

They will stay there until they earn enough 
money to rent and furnish a house for 
themselves. 


56 


The expression of past time. 


NAMES OF THE MONTHS AND SEASONS. TIME EXPRESSIONS 


The Months 


January April 

February May 

March June 


July October 

August November 

September December 


The Seasons 

spring summer autumn, or fall 


winter 


Time Expressions 


the first of the month 
the beginning of the month 
the middle of the month 
the last of the month 


in the spring 
in the springtime 
during the spring 
when spring comes 


1. He came to the United States on the first of last 
January. 

2. Nancy was born on February 10, 1910, and her sister 
was born on March 8, 1914. 

3. March, April, and May are the spring months. The 
weather will be cool, but not cold. 

4. June is the first summer month, and sometime 
about the middle of the month we shall have a picnic. 

5. The Fourth of July is a holiday in this country. On 
that day we celebrate our independence. 

6. I had my vacation last year during the last two weeks 
of August. The weather was hot and dry. 

7. During the three months, September, October, and 
November, I went to school every day. I could not 
go to school in December, because I worked all that 
month. 


Sentences. Questions and answers 


57 


8. I spent last January with my sister in Chicago, and 
next January I shall spend with my sister in Boston. 

9. Last fall we celebrated the third anniversary of our 
arrival in this country. Our friends visited us, and 
we spent two weeks together at our house. 

10. I took my friends, to see our city. We talked about 
our friends in Europe. We sang our native songs. 
We were very happy together for those two weeks. 

11. This is a cold, disagreeable winter. When, spring 
comes, and the weather gets warm, we shall have 
many beautiful flowers in our garden. 


Where were you yesterday? 

I was away on a visit. 

Where did you go? 

I went out into the country. 

Whom did you see? 

I saw my uncle and aunt and my cousins. 

What did you do all the time? 

We celebrated the second anniversary of my 
arrival in America. 

How did you celebrate it? 

We talked and sang and ate. 

Did you stay there long? 

I stayed until the next day. 

How did you go? 

I went by train and came back by automobile. 

How much time did you spend on the train? 

I spent one hour. 

How much money did you spend? 

I spent sixty cents for my fare. 



58 


The structure of simple sentences 


THE STRUCTURE OF SIMPLE SENTENCES 

I. With Transitive Verbs: 

Sentence: The little boy gets books here often. 

Complete Subject 
N oun+qualifiers 
The little boy. 

Complete Predicate 
Verb-f-object-|-adverbial modifiers 
* gets books here often. 

Simple Subject Verb 

boy (noun) gets 

1. With Intransitive Verbs: 

Sentence: The little boy comes to school to learn. 

Complete Subject 
N oun-|-qualifier s 
The little boy 

Complete Predicate 
Verb+adverbial modifiers 
comes to school to learn. 


Declarative Sentences: 

Affirmative Negative 

Pres. I ... I do not.. 

Fut. I shall. I shall not__ 

Past I __- I did not__ 

Pres. I can...:. I cannot.. 

Past I could.. I could not.. 

Ingerrogative Sentences: 

Pres. Do I ..? Where do I. ? 

Fut. Shall I.. . ? . When did I .. ? 

Past Did I.. ? Why shall I _t 

How can I ..? 

How much may I _? 



















Verbs, past tense 


59 


VERBS, PAST TENSE 


Affirmative 

I wrote. L 

I read. I 

I spoke. I 

I came. I 

I studied. I 

I listened. I 

I ate. I 

I stood. I 

I looked. I 

I bought. I 

I took. I 

I gave. I 

I saw. I 

I sent. I 

I worked. I 

I got. I 

I stayed. I 

I met. I 

I learned. I 

I visited. I 

I wanted. I 

I talked. I 

I made. I 

I sold. I 

I received. I 

I celebrated. I 

I lived. I 

I said. I 

I spent. I 

I traveled. I 


Negative 

did 

not 

write. 

did 

not 

read. 

did 

not 

speak. 

did 

not 

come. 

did 

not 

study. 

did 

not 

listen. 

did 

not 

eat. 

did 

not 

stand. 

did 

not 

look. 

did 

not 

buy. 

did 

not 

take. 

did 

not 

give. 

did 

not 

see. 

did 

not 

send. 

did 

not 

work. 

did 

not 

get. 

did 

not 

stay. 

did 

not 

meet. 

did 

not 

learn. 

did 

not 

visit. 

did 

not 

want. 

did 

not 

talk. 

did 

not 

make. 

did 

not 

sell. 

did 

not 

receive. 

did 

not 

celebrate. 

did 

not 

live. 

did 

not 

say. 

did 

not 

spend. 

did 

not 

travel. 


Interrogative 


Did 

HH 

write ? 

Did 

I 

read? 

Did 

I 

speak ? 

Did 

I 

come? 

Did 

I 

study? 

Did 

I 

listen ? 

Did 

I 

eat? 

Did 

I 

stand ? 

Did 

I 

look? 

Did 

I 

buy? 

Did 

I 

take? 

Did 

I 

give? 

Did 

I 

see? 

Did 

I 

send? 

Did 

I 

work? 

Did 

I 

get? 

Did 

I 

stay? 

Did 

I 

meet? 

Did 

I 

learn ? 

Did 

I 

visit ? 

Did 

I 

want? 

Did 

I 

talk? 

Did 

I 

make? 

Did 

I 

sell? 

Did 

I 

receive ? 

Did 

I 

celebrate? 

Did 

I 

live? 

Did 

I 

say? 

Did 

I 

spend ? 

Did 

I 

travel ? 


60 


The Crow and the Pitcher 


THE CROW AND THE PITCHER 

A crow found a pitcher with some water in it; but 
there was so little that she could not reach it with her 
beak. At last she found a plan by which she could get 
the water. She brought pebbles, and dropped them 
one by one into the pitcher. With each pebble the water 
rose higher and higher. At last the water reached the 
brim, and she was able to quench her thirst. 


so little that 

I have so little time that I cannot come to school 
every day. 

found a plan 

I have found a plan by which I can learn English; 
I can work during the day, and go to school during 
the evening. 

one by one 

I learn the words of my new language, one by one. 
able to 

I am able to understand this lesson. 

with each pebble, with each lesson 

With each lesson I learn more and more. 


What did the crow find? 

She found a pitcher with some water in it. 

Was there much water there? 

No, there was so little that she could not 
reach it. 

What did she do? 

In a short time she found a plan. 


Some adverbs of time 


61 


What was her plan? 

It was to bring pebbles and drop them into 
the pitcher one by one. 

What did the water do? 

It rose higher and higher. 

How high did it rise? 

It rose until it reached the brim of the pitcher. 

What did the crow then do? 

She was then able to drink and quench her 
thirst. 


SOME ADVERBS OF TIME 

Note.—T he following adverbs are frequently placed be¬ 
fore the verb; when there is an auxiliary, the 
normal position is between the auxiliary and the 
infinitive (principal verb). 


frequently 
sometimes 
seldom 
seldom ever 


always 

almost always 
often 

very often 


never 

hardly ever 

usually 

generally 


1. I always eat my breakfast here at seven o’clock. 

2. When Kate is home, she often goes out to the lake 
to row, but I hardly ever go. 

3. They seldom come to visit me, but I frequently go 
to see them. 

4. They generally pay their rent on the first of the 
month, and they always pay by check. 

5. I often go to see my friends who came from France, 
but we do not often speak in the French language. 
We almost always speak in English. 


62 


Some adverbs of time. 


6. Frank never comes to see me. I sometimes go to see 
him. I shall go there sometime next month. 

7. I seldom ever work until six o’clock, but I very often 
work until half past five. I usually quit work at five. 

8. He seldom speaks slowly and carefully; therefore he 
generally speaks indistinctly. 


Do you ever buy suits at the store on the 
corner ? 

Sometimes, but not often. 

You always wear good clothes; where do you 
get them? 

I usually get a tailor to make them. 

My tailor seldom ever makes a good looking 
suit. Who is your tailor? 

Thompson, at 234 Wood Street. 

Does he always charge high prices? 

No, no, he very often makes an inexpensive 
suit. 

Do you ever wear brown suits? 

I seldom wear brown, I generally wear blue. 

Does your tailor make your overcoats too? 

Yes, often. He makes good-looking overcoats. 

Did he make the overcoat that you have on? 

Yes, he did. He makes good-looking overcoats. 

I wear this coat every day, and it looks well 

yet. 

I like your clothes. Will you take me to your 
tailor ? 

Yes, I can go with you to-morrow, meet me 
here at noon. 


A friendly letter 


63 


A FRIENDLY LETTER 


My dear Sister, 


1463 Penn Avenue, 
Pittsburgh, Pa. 
April 6, 1924. 


I shall write you a short letter in English. I can¬ 
not write much, because I do not know many words. I 
go to school every day and next month I shall know 
more words; and then I shall be able to write you a 
long letter. 


We want you to come to Pittsburgh to visit us 
about the first of June. Come and stay two or three 
weeks with us. We can have a good time, because now 
I can speak well enough to go all over the city alone. 


Write to me and tell me when you will arrive in 
Pittsburgh, and I shall meet you at the station. 

It is time for me to go to school; so I must close. 


Your sister, 

Mary Johnson. 


Envelope 


Mary Johnson, 
1463 Penn Ave., 


Pittsburgh, Pa. 

Miss Nancy Johnson, 

4625 Fifth Avenue, 

New York, 

New York. 



64 


The relative pronouns that and what 


THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS THAT AND WHAT 

1. This is the box that you want. 

This is the box you want. (That may be omitted). 
This is what you want. 

2. I gave him the paper that he wants. 

I gave him the paper he wants. 

I gave him what he wants. 

3. We shall see the work that they do. 

We shall see the work they do. 

We shall see what they do. 

4. I told her everything that John said. 

I told her everything John said. 

I told her what John said. 

i 

5. I studied the lesson that you gave me. 

I studied the lesson you gave me. 

I studied what you gave me. 

6. I do not understand what you say; the words that 
you use are new to me. 

7. This is a good pencil; it is the one that I want to 
use to-day. 

8. I let her have the little chair, because I did not have 
the big one that she asked for. 

9. I did not buy the hat that I liked, because I did not 
have enough money. 

10. All the people that live on this street live in brick 
houses. 

11. The books that are on the table are school books; last 
year I read everything that is in them. 

12. Let me see everything that you have in your box; 
then I shall let you see what I have in my box. 


Near, Far 


65 


What do yon want? 

I want the pen that I pnt on the table a 
moment ago. 

What did you do with the one that your 
mother gave you last year? 

I have it yet; I always leave it at home. 

Here is one that I found on the floor. Will 
you use it? 

Yes, I will. I very often find pencils there too. 

Do you have the paper that the teacher gave 
you? 

Yes, here is some of it. 


FAR 

far 


NEAR 


near 

a short distance 


a long distance 


1. The book is near the box, but the pen is far from 
the box. 

2. I walk to school this year because I live near; but 
last year I rode to school because I lived far away. 

3. John walks a short distance.to his work, but Henry 
has a long distance to go. 

4. It is a long distance from here to John’s house. I 
cannot walk there, but I shall ride in a street car. 

a short time a long time 

1. Europe is a long distance from the United States, 
and it took me a long time to come from there to 
this country. 

2. I sat in my room a long time last night and read 
my new book; then I went out for a short time to 
walk. 


66 


Near, Far 


3. It takes a long time to walk that long distance; but 
it takes a short time to make the trip by automobile. 

4. On my way to this country I traveled a short distance 
on land by railroad, and then I traveled a long 
distance on water by steamship. 

5. A short time ago I read about the first English peo¬ 
ple who crossed the Atlantic Ocean. They came in 
sailboats, and not in steamships as you and I came. 

6. Before I came to this country, I thought I could learn 
to speak the language in a short time; but now I 
think that it will take me a long time to learn to 
speak it well. 

7. I live a short distance from the school; therefore it 
takes me only a short time to come here. But Albert 
lives a long distance from the school, and it takes him 
a long time to come. 


Do you live far from here? 

Yes, I do. I live a long distance away. 

\ 

How do you come from home? 

I come in by train. 

Does it take you long to come? 

No, just a half hour on a fast train. 

When you went to Charles’s a short time ago, 
did you travel by train? 

No, I went by automobile. 

Is your house a long distance from your work? 
Yes, it is quite a long distance, and I almost 
always walk it too. 



Before, After, Afterwards, Since, Until 


67 


BEFORE, AFTER, AFTERWARDS, SINCE, UNTIL 

I opened my book before I sat down. 

I opened my book after I sat down. 

1. Before I came to the United States, I did not under¬ 
stand English; but after I came, I went to school 
and learned it. 

2. I came here this morning a little after half past nine 
o’clock, and I stayed until after twelve. 

3. Sometime about the middle of last January Nellie 
went to California, and afterwards she went to Ohio. 

4. Frank got a book since he came to school. After 
he reads it, he will let you read it. 

5. It is several weeks since I saw Jane. I could not go 
to see her last week, but I can go this week. 

6. Finish your work early to-morrow, and then bring 
your family to our house. We shall have dinner to¬ 
gether; then we shall sing some of our native songs. 

7. Let us finish our work and go out for a walk. I 
seldom stay in the house all day. I frequently go 
out after I do my work. 

8. Frank bought the house that he looked at yesterday; 
then he bought a piano, and after that he bought 
an automobile. 

9. It is a long time since Mr. and Mrs. Long came to 
our city, but it is not so long since Mr. and Mrs. 
Green came. I came since the Greens came. 

10. She sewed all day to-day. She sewed from eight 
o’clock until five. She is tired now, but after she 
rests for a while, she will go out to buy something 
for to-morrow ’b dinner. 


68 


Partitive expressions 


When did yon see Miss Long? 

It is several weeks since I saw her. 

Did she go to Europe after her school closed? 

Yes, she went, and she will stay until September. 

After she comes home, will she return to school ? 

She will arrive on the first of the month, and 
she will enter school immediately after her 
arrival. 

Will she go to school next year? 

She will finish this year, and afterwards she 
will become a teacher. 


PARTITIVE EXPRESSIONS 


Referring to objects in 
a mass: 


Referring to objects sepa¬ 
rately : 


all of it 


all of them 
part of them 
most of them 
some of them 
half of them 


part of it 
most of it 
some of it 
half of it 


the rest of it 


the rest of them 
none of them 


none of it 
much of it 


a little of it 


many of them 
one of them 


both of them 
a few of them 


a number of them 
several of them 


all the books (noun) 
all of them (pronoun) 


Sentences 


69 


1. There is some water in the little bottle. Ponr all of 
it into the .big bottle. 

2. There were many buttons on the table. She pnt all 
of them into the box. 

3. She took part of the ink from the big bottle and 
pnt it into the little one. 

4. There is paper in the cupboard. I shall get some of 
it and give it to you. 

5. We shall get many pencils. We shall put most of 
them away for next month. I shall give one of them 
to each student here. 

6. We have much paper, but a little of it is not good; 
we have many books, and all of them are good. 

7. John bought many books last week. He paid much 
money for most of them, but not too much. 

8. I do not know all these words now. Many of them 
are new to me. I shall study them much, and in a 
short time I shall know most of them. 

9. Some of the students of this class can read well; 
others read very well. Some can read much, some 
cannot read much, and others can read very much. 

10. There are too many books here for him to carry. He 
is a very strong man, and he can carry many books, 
but he cannot carry fifty books at one time. 

11. All the students of this class came from foreign 
countries. Some of them came from Italy, a few of 
them came from Greece, one of them came from 
China, but none of them came from Turkey. 

12. John has many pencils and much money in his pock¬ 
ets, but he has also very many pencils and very much 
monev in a box at home. At home he has too many 
pencils and too much money to put into his pockets. 


70 


Partitive expressions 


13. Mr. Smith has many houses.' He paid much money 
for this one, but he did not pay too much for it. 
It is a large house with very many rooms. 

14. There were many people at the meeting, but there 
were not too many. Each person got a seat; none 
had to stand. 

15. I saw a great many people on the street yesterday, 
but to-day there are not very many there. 

16. There were many people there, and they gave much 
money for the new building. This building will cost 
very much. It will be large, for there are many 
people to occupy it. 

17. They had many good chairs, but they sold a number 
of them last week, and they will sell several of them 
this week. 

18. They sold two big chairs to-day. They did not sell 
them both to one man, but they sold one to one man, 
and the other to another man. 


How many English books do you have? 

I have five. 

Did you pay much for them? 

No, not so much; one dollar each. 

How many of them do you have here? 

I have most of them here. 

Do you read much? 

Yes, I read very much. 

Do all these students have English books? 
Yes, all of them. 

Can they all read them? 

A few of them cannot, but most of them can. 


Expressing amount of time 


71 


EXPRESSING AMOUNT OP TIME 

I. Shortness of time: 

It takes, it will take, or it took 

a great deal of time to make it. 
only (or but) a minute to make it. 
only (or but) a minute or two to see him. 
only (or but) a moment to write it. 
only (or but) a little while to go. 
only (or but) an instant to get it. 

II. Length of time: 

It takes, it will take, or it took 

a long time to learn it well. 
some time to visit all of them. 
much time to become a druggist. 
a great deal of time to make it. 
a good deal of time to mend it. 
plenty of time to finish that job. 
hours to get all this done. 
many days to build a house. 
days to do all that work. 

III. A very, long time: 

It takes, it will take, or it took 

years to raise an oak tree. 
a life-time to establish a good trade. 
forever to build a city. 

for ever and ever to exhaust the supply of coal. 
time without end to become a good singer. 
an endless amount of time to learn engineering. 
ages to build a nation. 

How long does it take to. 

How long did it take to.-. 

How long will it take to. 





72 


Expressing amount of time 


1. Before you go home let us open our books and study 
for a while. It will take us but a short time to learn 
our lessons. 

2. It will take us months to learn to speak well, but it 
will take us only a little while to understand a great 
deal. 

3. It took me months to decide to come to America. At 
last I set sail, and it seemed to take me ages to cross 
the ocean. 

4. My friends told me to take plenty of time for study. 
They said it would take a good deal of time to learn 
to speak well. 

5. It takes but a short time to learn to read. It takes 
a longer time to learn to write, and it takes still 
longer to learn to speak. 

6. Joe says it took him months to learn his work, but 
it sometimes takes years to learn it. 

7. It took him a life-time to become a good singer. It 
took months and months of practice for him to be¬ 
come able to appear in public as a singer. 

8. It will take me some time to do all the work that I 
have to do to-day; I seldom have so much to do in 
a day. 

9. I hope to give some time to the study of music; and 
then too, I want to give some time to the study of 
chemistry. 

10. I cannot give all my time to pleasure, but I shall al¬ 
ways give some time to it, I hope. 

11. I expect to give days, weeks, and years to the work 
that I have chosen to do; but I have promised myself 
to give a little time each day to amusement of some 
kind. 


A Shopping Trip 


73 


A SHOPPING TRIP 

One day last week Hannah and her mother went 
out to do a day’s shopping. They took the street car 
and rode for a half honr; then they got off near a big 
department store. They bought clothing for Hannah to 
wear to school. They bought many things, which they 
had sent home because they could not carry so much. 
They will receive the bill for these things that they 
bought on the first of next month. Hannah now has 
everything that she will need to wear for the winter. 

went out 

I went out to work at 6:30. 
took the car 

I take the car at 6:30 every day. 

get off 

I got off the steamship at New York. 
will need 

I shall need a pair of shoes soon. 

Where did Hannah and her mother go last week? 
They went to a department store to shop. 

How did they go! 

They went in a street car. 

Did they have far to go? 

They rode a half hour. 

What did they buy? 

They bought clothing for Hannah to wear 
to school. 

Did they take the things they bought home 
with them ? 

No, they bought too much to carry; they had 
them sent. 

Did they pay cash? 

No, they had them charged. They will pay the 
bill on the first of next month. 

Will Hannah need anything more for the winter ? 

No, she has everything that she needs. 


74 


Completed action in present time 


EXPRESSING COMPLETED ACTION IN 
PRESENT TIME 


VERBS, PAST PARTICIPLES 

Reference matter for the learner. 


Present 

Past 

Past Participle 

become 

became 

become 

begin 

began 

begun 

bring 

brought 

brought 

build 

built 

built 

buy 

bought 

bought 

come 

came 

come 

do 

did 

done 

earn 

earned 

earned 

eat 

ate 

eaten 

enter 

entered 

entered 

find 

found 

found 

finish 

finished 

finished 

get 

got 

got 

give 

gave 

given 

go 

went 

gone 

hear 

heard 

heard 

know 

knew 

known 

learn 

learned 

learned 

let 

let 

let 

like 

liked 

liked 

live 

lived 

lived 

make 

made 

made 

meet 

met 

met 

need 

needed 

needed 

pay 

paid 

paid 

read 

read 

read 

say 

said 

said 

see 

saw 

seen 

send 

sent 

sent 


Conjugation of verb write, perfect tense 


75 


sing 

sang 

sung 

spend 

spent 

spent 

stand 

stood 

stood 

stay 

stayed 

stayed 

study 

studied 

studied 

take 

took 

taken 

understand 

understood 

understood 

visit 

visited 

visited 

wear 

wore 

worn 

work 

worked 

worked 

write 

wrote 

written 


CONJUGATION OF VERB i WRITE ’ IN THE 
PERFECT (PRESENT PERFECT) TENSE 

Affirmative Forms 

I have written. We have written. 

You have written. You have written. 

He has written. They have written. 


Negative Forms 

I have not written. We have not written. 

You have not written. You have not written. 
He has not written. They have not written, 


Interrogative Forms 

Have we written? 
Have you written? 
Have they written? 


Have I written? 
Have you written? 
Has he written? 


76 


Completed action in present time 


The perfect tense is a perplexing tense in English. 
It makes a statement in present time and refers to past 
action. The perfect tense expresses the present result 
of a past action or event. 

I have a paper written—1 wrote a paper and still 
have it. But, I have written a paper (perfect tense) says 
of me that the writing is now finished, but does not say 
whether I still have the paper or not. 

Have yon wntten the paperf is a question about the 
present time. Did you write the paper? is a question 
about some definite time in the past. 

1. I bought paper yesterday, and I have brought it to 
school with me to-day; but I have not written on it 
yet. 

2. These two men studied English in our school for one 
whole year, and they have learned enough to become 
citizens of the United States. 

3. Fred was at work all day yesterday, but he has not 

yet finished. After he has finished his work and has 

studied his lessons, he will play his violin and sing 
some songs for us. 

4. I bought this coat a long time ago. I have now earn¬ 
ed enough money to buy a new one. During the 
past week I visited several stores to look for one, and 
I have just found one that I like at Kaufmann’s. 

5. Sam has gone to New York ; he went last week. He 

has taken his family with him, and they will stay 

there for several years. 

6. That man makes a good living. He began to work 
in this factory ten years ago. By this time he has 
saved enough money to build a house for which he 
agreed last week to pay a large sum of money. 


Sentences 


77 


7. I never saw the house he used to live in, but I have 
seen the one he lives in now. 

8. A year ago I could not understand what he said, 
but I entered this school several months ago, and I 
have become able to understand almost everything 
that I hear. 

9. John gave me a good pencil the other day. He has 
given me a number of pencils this year, and I have 
taken them all home except this red one. 

10. I wrote a letter to my brother in Europe. Since I 
came to this country I have written him five letters 
altogether. 

11. I ate at the Colonial Restaurant to-day. I have eaten 
there many times and I have never been disappointed 
in the food. 

12. I bought a pair of shoes at Smith’s this week. I 
have bought my shoes there for several years. 

13. Mary’s father bought her a new hat and a new coat. 
He has now bought her all the clothes she will need 
for a while. 

14. I told John not to spend so much money for nothing. 
I have told him this many times, but so far he has 

not listened to me. 

• 

15. I studied this lesson one hour day before yesterday, 
one hour yesterday, and one hour again to-day. I 
have studied it in all three hours. 

16. He came in an hour ago, and he has sat there ever 
since he came; and I see that he has written his 
whole lesson with great care. 

17. It rained hard yesterday. It has rained hard all day 
to-day. The sun has not shone once. 

18. Marion brought us a bouquet of beautiful flowers 
yesterday. She has brought us many flowers this year. 


78 


Buying a Suit of Clothes 


Have you seen the Millers since I saw you 
before ? 

I have seen Lawrence, but I have not seen the 
others. 

What has Lawrence done since I saw him last 
fall? 

He has worked steadily in their shoe store for 
more than a year. 

The whole family worked in it, I believe. 

Yes, all the grown up ones. 

How long have you known them? 

I have known them ever since I came to this 
city. 

Have you become acquainted with Lawrence’s 
brother, the doctor? 

I have met him several times, but I do not 
know him well. 

He has gone from here now. Have you seen 
him since he left? 

He went away two years ago, and he has been 
back once; I saw him then. 

How long is it since you came here? 

It is a long time now since I came; I have been 
here five years this coming May. 


BUYING A SUIT OF CLOTHES 


Salesman: Have you been waited on? 

Customer: No, I have not; but I should like to look 
at some suits of clothes. 


Salesman: Come this way, please. About what price? 
Customer: Show me a suit for about forty-five dollars. 


Salesman: Do you want a dark suit or a light one? 
Customer: I want a dark brown suit. 


Phrases expressing quantity 


79 


Salesman : 

Brown is stylish this season. Here is a nice 

Customer : 

suit. Try it on to get the size. 

The color is too light. Show me a better suit 
in darker brown. 

Salesman : 

1 

Here is a dark brown one. It is the best 

Customer: 

for the money that we have in the store. 

I like that one. Let me try it on. 

Salesman : 
Customer : 

It looks well. How does it feel? 

The coat is a little tight, and the sleeves are 
too short. Let me try a size larger. 

Salesman: 
Customer: 

All right, I have one a size larger. Try this. 
I like this one; it is very comfortable. What 
is the price of it? 

Salesman: 

It is fifty-seven fifty, reduced from sixty-five. 
It is made of a fine quality of cloth, and it 

Customer : 

will give you good service. 

I will take it. Can you send it out to-day? 

Salesman : 

If you live in the city, I can send it out this 
afternoon. Give me your name and address, 

Customer: 

please. 

John Miller, 4235 Penn Avenue. 

Salesman : 
Customer: 

Cash or credit? 

Cash. 

Salesman : 
Customer: 

I shall send it to-day. Good-by, come again. 
Good-by. 


PHRASES EXPRESSING QUANTITY 
Expressions Relating to Amount of Quantity 

A quantity that satisfies: 

I have enough paper to write a letter. 

I have sufficient time to go there. 

I have plenty of money to buy it. 

I have all the time that I need for study. 

I have an abundance of material to make a suit. 
I have an ample supply of winter clothing. 


80 


The Fox and The Crow 


A quantity that more than satisfies: 

I have too much ink on my pen. 

I have more than enough paper. 

I have more chairs than I need. 

I have more chairs than are necessary. 

A quantity that does not satisfy: 

I have not enough money to buy it. 

I have nearly enough time to finish this. 

I have almost enough time to finish this. 

I have hardly enough-cloth to make the dress. 
I have not quite enough bread for dinner. 

I have scarcely enough persons to help me. 

I have less time than I need to learn this. 

I have a stinted supply of pens. 


THE FOX AND THE CROW 


A fox saw a crow fly off with a piece of cheese in its 
beak and settle on the branch of a tree. 

“That is for me,” said Master Fox, and he walked up 
to the foot of the tree. “Good day, Mistress Crow,” 
said he, “how well you look to-day; how glossy your 
feathers and how bright your eye! I am sure that your 
voice must surpass that of all other birds. Let me hear 
but one song from you that I may call you Queen of 
Birds.” 

The Crow lifted up her head and began to caw her 
best; but the moment she opened her mouth, the piece 
of cheese fell to the ground and was snapped up by 
Master Fox. 

“That will do,” said he, “that is all that I wanted.” 


Explanatory exercise. Questions and answers 


81 


fly off, run off, go off 
He goes off to work early. 

settle 

Frank came to America and settled in New York. 
walked up to 

I walked up to a policeman to inquire the way to 
the station. 

how well you look 

How well John looks, and how hard he works. 

must surpass, (must be better than) 

John’s work must surpass that of the other men in 
the shop. 

John’s work must be better than that of the other 
men in the shop. 

let me hear, let m,e see 

Let me see your work that I may judge of it. 
call you, call it, call him 

I call him Mr. Jones. I call him the best of the work¬ 
men. 

that will do 

That will do. You need not write more. ( that will do, 
that is enough.) 

What did the fox see? 

He saw a crow fly off and settle on the branch 
of a tree. 

What had the crow in her mouth? 

She had a piece of cheese. 

What did Master Fox say when he saw the 
cheese ? 

He said, “That is for me.” 


82 


Past participles used as adjectives 


Then what did he do? 

He walked up to the foot of the tree and began 
to talk to Mistress Crow. 

What did he say to her? 

He said, “Good day, Mistress Crow, how well 
you look; how glossy your feathers, and how 
bright your eyes! I am sure that your 
voice must surpass that of all other birds.’’ 

What else did he say? 

He said, “Let me hear but one song from you 
that I may call you Queen of Birds.” 

What did the crow do? 

She lifted up her head and began to caw her 
best. 

What happened then? 

As she opened her mouth to sing, the piece 
of cheese fell to the ground. 

Then what happened? 

Master Fox snapped it up and said, “That 
will do, that is all I wanted.” 

PAST PARTICIPLES USED AS ADJECTIVES 


Present 

Past 

Past Participle 

break 

broke 

broken 

burn 

burned 

burned, burnt 

finish 

finished 

finished 

know 

knew 

known 

learn 

learned 

learned 

speak 

spoke 

spoken 

steal 

stole 

stolen 

wear 

wore 

worn 

write 

wrote 

written 

civilize 

civilized 

civilized 

frighten 

frightened 

frightened 


Sentences 


83 


1. She has put the milk into a broken pitcher, and it 
has run all over the floor. 

2. He threw the burnt matches on the floor, and that 
carelessness has caused the fire. 

3. I gave all the finished papers to the teacher for cor¬ 
rection, but she has not returned them yet. 

4. They chose a learned man for their leader, and he 
has 'been a guide to them ever since he was chosen. 

5. It is difficult to learn spoken English, but it is neces¬ 
sary for those who expect to live in the United States. 

6. The policeman found the stolen goods stored in an 
old, vacant building. 

7. I have several worn out pairs of gloves in that box. 
Take them out, for there is no place among my 
belongings for trash. 

8. I have his spoken word for it, and also his written 
word. He cannot go back on his agreement. 

9. Educated persons have read and studied much. They 
have mastered the spoken forms and the written 
forms of their native languages. 

10. Civilized persons all over the world have respect for 
law and order. It is the uncivilized who break laws, 
steal, and commit murder. 

11. A frightened child carrying a handful of burnt 
matches ran out of the burning building. 

12. He is a well known man. Learned persons every¬ 
where have read about him. 

13. The broken articles were thrown away, and the 
finished ones were packed in boxes for shipping. 


84 


Completed action in past time 


EXPRESSING COMPLETED ACTION IN PAST TIME 

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB i WRITE ’ IN THE 
PAST PERFECT TENSE 

Affirmative Forms 

We had written. 

You had written. 

They had written. 

Negative Forms 

I had not written. We had not written. 

You had not written. You had not written. 

He had not written. They had not written. 

Interrogative Forms 

Had I written? Had we written? 

Had you written? Had you written? 

Had he written? Had they written? 

The past perfect makes the same kind of statement 

about past time that the perfect makes about present 

time. It expresses completed action in past time. 

1. Before you came in to see me yesterday I had written 
three letters and had sent them to Europe. 

2. He had not learned to speak English before he came 
to this country, but he has learned to do so since 
he came here. 

3. He had not said anything about it to me until he saw 
me to-day. He had not seen me before. 

4. I had never seen this book until my teacher gave 
it to me last month, and since then I have read 
many pages in it. 

5. He had sung three songs before we got there. I have 
heard him sing often, and I like his singing very 
much. 

6. Peter had not known Fred until they met last year, 
although their fathers had been friends years before. 


I had written. 
You had written. 
He had written. 


Sentences. Questions and answers 


85 


Had you eaten your lunch before I saw you 
yesterday, or did you eat it afterwards? 

I had eaten it before I met you. 

Had you worked long before you went out 
to lunch? 

I had worked from eight o’clock, and I had 
had no breakfast. 

Had you gone home before I came in the after¬ 
noon? I called, but you were out. 

I had gone out of my office to attend to some 
business, but I came in a few minutes 
after you left. 

Had you seen John before you went out? 

I had not seen him, but I had talked with 
him over the telephone. 


You heard Mrs. Black sing last night; had 
you ever heard her sing before? 

Yes, I heard her sing one year ago last Decem¬ 
ber, and I had heard her several times 
before that. 

You had never been in that new theater before 
last night, had you? 

No, I had not, but I have been in one much 
like it. 

Before I telephoned you yesterday, had you 
intended to go to hear Mrs. Black sing? 

No, I had not, I had intended to go out for a 
walk with some friends. 


86 


Renting a Room 


RENTING A ROOM 

I shall go down town to-night to look at a room. 
I saw a sign in the window of a nice looking house on 
the street below, and I want to go before the room is 
taken by some one else. It may be taken before to¬ 
morrow. Good-by, I shall return in a few minutes. 


Landlady: 
Mr. Smith: 


Landlady : 


Mr. Smith: 


Landlady : 
Mr. Smith: 

Landlady: 


Mr. Smith: 

Landlady: 
Mr. Smith: 
Landlady : 


How do you do? 

How do you do? I came to look at your 
rooms. I saw the sign in the window as 
I passed this morning. 

Come in, and I shall show them to you. I 
have one on the second floor and one on 
the third. Here is the small one; the one 
on the third floor is larger than this. 

This one does not have enough windows for 
me; I like plenty of air and plenty of light 
in my room. Show me the other one, please. 

Let us go to the third floor; the room there 
is much larger and has three large windows. 

What a nice clean looking room! I like this 
large closet too. What is the price of this 
room? 

This room is fifteen dollars a month, pay¬ 
able in advance; two dollars a month extra 
during December, January, and February, 
because of the additional expense of heat¬ 
ing and lighting. 

This room suits me; I shall take it. When 
may I come in? 

To-morrow, if you wish. 

I shall be here to-morrow evening. Good-by. 

Good-by, the room will be ready for you 

when you come. 


i 


The self-pronouns 


87 


Here I am, back home again. I have just rented a 
better room than I have had since I came to this place. 
It is a large room on the third floor of the house at 
the corner of Wheeling and Ninth Streets. It has three 
large windows, two of which overlook the park. The 
wall paper is neat and clean, and the room is furnished 
in good taste. I am going to move in to-morrow night. 
Come down with me and see for yourself how cozy it is. 


THE SELF-PRONOUNS 


ourselves 

yourselves 

themselves 


myself 

yourself 

himself, herself, itself 


1. I shall do the work myself. 

2. You yourself may have that candy. 

3. He bought the meat himself, and she cooked it herself. 

4. The cat ate all the meat itself; the dog got none. 

5. We shall do this work ourselves; you do that your¬ 
selves. 

6. They themselves will tell you all about it. 

7. I burnt myself and you burnt yourself on this stove. 

8. He bought himself a new suit, and she bought her¬ 
self a new hat. 

9. Let us get ourselves some lunch; they got themselves 
lunch an hour ago. 

10. He sits by himself to study, and we sit by ourselves 
to talk. 

11. The chair stands in the comer by itself; the other 
furniture has been taken away. 

12. I want this for my own self, and he wants that for 

himself. 

13. She is selfish; she keeps it for her own self; she 
will not share it with anyone. 


14 They are not neighborly; they live to themselves a 
* great deal, and they want everything for themselves. 


88 


Correlatives 


CORRELATIVES 


both.and 

not only.._. but also 

either.or 

neither.,....nor 


though.yet 

although.still 

since.therefore 

if.then 


1. I told both Mary and John to go to the table. 

2. I want not only Mary and John bnt also James and 

Paul to go to the door. 

3. I want either Mary or John to go to the blackboard. 

4. I want neither James nor Paul to go. 

5. Though there was much trouble in Europe, yet I 
managed to get away and to come to America. 

6. Since I paid twenty cents for two pens; therefore 

the cost of one pen is ten cents. 

7. If I go to see him to-day, then I shall not go to¬ 

morrow. 

8. Both James and Paul have had not only four years in 
high school but also two years at the Musical 
Institute. 

9. They offered me this position; and they will give me 
not only a good salary but also a fine office. I must 
either accept or decline the offer within two weeks. 

10. If all the members could be persuaded to come to the 
meeting, they might not only pay their dues but 
also pay some money into the treasury. 

11. Although I have studied this subject for a long 
time, still I do not have a clear understanding of it. 
I must either find some books to read or find some 
one who will explain it to me. 










Completed action in future time 


89 


EXPRESSING COMPLETED ACTION IN FUTURE 

TIME 

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB ‘ WRITE ’ IN THE FUTURE 
PERFECT TENSE 

Affirmative Forms 

I shall have written. We shall have written. 

You will have written. You will have written. 

He will have written. They will have written. 

Negative Forms 

I shall not have written. We shall not have written. 

You will not have written. You will not have written. 

He will not have written. They will not have written. 

Interrogative Forms 

Shall I have written? Shall we have written? 

Shall you have written? Shall you have written? 

Will he have written? Will they have written? 

The Future Perfect expresses completed action in 

future time. Compare this with the meaning of the 

perfect (present perfect) and the past perfect. 

1. By six o’clock this evening I shall have written 
eight letters. 

2. By the beginning of next week Charles will have 
bought a house and furnished it, and by the end of 
the week he will have moved into it. 

3. He comes sometimes, and by fall he will have been 
here and will have told me all about what he has 
done there. 

4. They will not have finished their work on that house 
until after Mr. Wilson comes, and he will have been 
here before you see me again. 

5. By the end of the week I shall have learned this 
lesson well. I shall have learned to use in conver¬ 
sation what this lesson teaches me. 


90 


Directions for finding one’s way 


6. On January 1, 1925 he will have sung for that com¬ 
pany five years. He has become a good singer, and 
before long he will have a better position. 

7. When this winter is over I shall have worn this 
coat for three winters. I wore it two winters be¬ 
fore, and if I wear it the rest of this winter, I shall 
have saved the price of a coat. 

8. He has stood there a long time; soon he will have 
stood there forty-five minutes. 

9. They will be here by the time you get here, and they 
will have begun to work. I shall have given them 
everything they need to do the work. When you 
come I shall have time to talk with you. 

Shall you have written to him by this time 
to-morrow ? 

I shall not have written to him, but I shall have 
seen him and talked with him. 

Will they have begun their work by eight 
o’clock? 

Yes, earlier than that; they will have begun 
by 7:30. 

Will they have finished the building one year 
from now ? 

I think so; I think they will have finished by 
that time. 

DIRECTIONS FOR FINDING ONE’S WAY 

Mr. Jones: Will you direct me to the nearest drug 

store, please? 

Policeman: Go up this street one block; turn to the 

right and go one block; then turn to the 
left again. There you will find a drug 
store in the middle of the block, on the 
right side. 


A Call on James Sotos 


91 


Mr. Williams: Can you tell me where the post office is, 
please? 

Policeman : Yes sir. Go down this street three 

squares; then turn to your right and go 
one square. The post gffice is on the 
corner to your left. 


Mrs. Williams: Will you direct me to the Union Station, 
please ? 

Policeman: It is a long walk, Madam. Take car No. 

44 and tell the conductor to let you off at 
the Union Station. 

Mrs. Rose: Where are children’s hats, please? 

Floor-Walker: On the fifth floor, Madam; take the ele¬ 
vator at the rear of the second aisle to 
the right. 


A CALL ON JAMES SOTOS 

Last evening I went over to the other side of the 
city to call on my old friend, James Sotos. He was sur- 
prised to see me, because he did not know that I had 
arrived here from Europe. We talked and talked for a 
long time. He and I came from the same town, and we 
had been school-mates in our childhood; we therefore 

have many things in common. 

He came here five years before I came; and it 1 
had met him on the street, I should not have known 
him He used to be tall and slender; but now he is so 
much heavier and so much jollier than he was when I 
knew him before. He told me of many amusing ex¬ 
periences that he had had shortly after he first came 
and before he had learned English. 

On the second day after his arrival he went out to 
look around the city; and as he became interested he 
walked on and on, turning up this street and down t a . 
At last he became tired and decided that he would go 




92 A Call on James Sotos. Explanatory exercise 

home; but when he had gone a few blocks, he found 
that he did not recognize any of the streets. There he 
was, lost in a big city. He could not pronounce distinct¬ 
ly either the name of his street or the number of his 
house; so he was unable to inquire the way. Finally 
he met a man who he thought looked like a fellow- 
countryman. He addressed him; and sure enough, the 
man was not only a fellow-countryman,. but a friend of 
James’s brother. 

James appreciated being taken home, and that night 
he decided that he would go to school to learn English. 
So here he is to-day, speaking the language well and 
doing well in business. 


to call (to visit for a few minutes) 

I want to call on some friends this afternoon. 

shortly after (a short time after) 

I got up this morning shortly after six o’clock. 

in common (belonging to all) 

We do not have a language in common here, there¬ 
fore it is difficult to carry on a conversation. 

surprised to 

I am surprised to hear you speak English so well. 

addressed him (spoke to him) 

After I talked with you, I addressed him and asked 
him the same question that I asked you. 

used to be (was so in the past, but is so no longer) 

I used to be a student in a school in Europe. 

he found (he learned) 

He found that he could not be happy until he learn¬ 
ed the language of his new country. 

he was unable (could not) 

He was unable to come to school last year. 


Comparison 


93 


Positive 

Degree 

tall 

long 

short 

heavy 

light 

thick 

big 

large 

small 

rich 

poor 


good 

bad 

well 

little 

much, many 
More and 

beautiful 

thorough 

careful 

economical 

northern 

successful 

distinct 


COMPARISON 


COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 


Regular Comparison 

Comparative 

Degree 


Superlative 

Degree 


taller 

tallest 

longer 

longest 

shorter 

shortest 

heavier 

heaviest 

lighter 

lightest 

thicker 

thickest 

bigger 

biggest 

larger 

largest 

smaller 

smallest 

richer 

richest 

poorer 

poorest 

Irregular Comparison 

better 

best 

worse 

worst 

better 

less 

* least 

• more 

most 


Most used to form 
Superlatives 

more beautiful 
more thorough 
more careful 
more economical 
niore northern 
more successful 
more distinct 


Comparatives and 

most beautiful 
most thorough 
most careful 
most economical 
most northern 
most successful 
most distinct 


94 


Comparison 


Note. —The comparative is used to compare one object or 
group with another. 

1. Susan is tall; she is taller than Kate. 

2. Susan is the taller of the two. 

3. The pansy is beautiful, but the rose is more beautiful. 

4. The rose is the more beautiful of the two flowers. 

5. John has more money than William, but Harry has 
the most. 

6. Frank was not well yesterday, and he is worse to-day. 

7. The smaller of those two children is the heavier. 

8. I know both Mr. Black and; Mr. Green. Mr. Green 
is the richer. Mr. Black is the poorer, and he is the 
happier also. 

9. Harry is more economical than Thomas, but William 
is the most economical one of the family. 

10. We want to know the shortest and best way to go, 
because we want to go in a shorter time than we 
went before. 

11. She is a more careful writer to-day than she was a 
week ago. She will soon be the most careful writer 
in this school. 

12. Guy has grown much taller and heavier than he was 
when I saw him last. Now he is the tallest and 
heaviest one of the family. 

13. Of those three books, I shall take the smallest. Of 
the other two, give the smaller to Frank. Tell him 
to read it in the shortest time possible and return it 
to you. 

14. He is the more successful of the two brothers. He 
does not work so hard as his brother works, but he 
is more economical. 


Comparison of adverbs 


95 


COMPARISON OF ADVERBS 


Positive 

Comparative 

Superlative 

early 

earlier 

earliest 

late 

later 

latest 

soon 

sooner 

soonest 

often 

oftener 

oftenest 

quick 

quicker 

quickest 

well 

better 

best 

little 

less 

least 

carefully 

more carefully 

most carefully 

economically 

more economically 

most economically 

n cj 

as 

so.as. 

do. 

1. This pen 

is as good as yours. 


This pen 

is not so good as yours. 

2. This pen 

writes as well as yours 

writes. 

This pen 

does not write so well as yours. 

3. He reads 

as well as I read. 


He does not read so well as I < 

do. 


4. Ilis reading is as good as mine. 

His reading is not so good as mine. 

5. He speaks as well as Jack speaks. 

He does not speak so well as Jack speaks. 

6. His speech is as good as Jack’s is. 

His speech is not so good as Jack’s. 

7. This is the best pen in the box. 

This pen is not so good as the other pens in the box. 

8. Henry is the fastest worker of all the men. 

Henry does not work so fast as the- others. 

9. Of all the members of this class, she is the most dis¬ 
tinct speaker. 

She does not speak so distinctly as the other members 
of this class do. 




96 


Comparison 


10. They came sooner to-day than they did yesterday. 
They did not come so soon this time as they did 
yesterday. 

11. Jack studies more carefully than the others do, and 
he accomplishes more. 

James studies with less care than the others do, and 
he accomplishes less. 

12. Her writing is good. 

She writes well. 

Her writing is as good as yours. 

She writes as well as you do. 

Her writing is not so good as yours. 

She does not write so well as you write. 

13. Her speech is clear and distinct. 

She speaks clearly and distinctly. 

Her speech is as clear and distinct as yours is. 

She speaks as clearly and distinctly as you do. 

Her speech is not so clear and distinct as yours. 
She does not speak so clearly and distinctly as you 
speak. 


\ 

‘more* and ‘than’ used in contrasting 

ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 

1. John is more kind than wise. We appreciate the 
kindness of his act, but not the wisdom that directed it. 

2. He is interested more in pleasure than in work; and 
he, therefore, barely makes a living. 

3. He acted more boldly than discreetly in that busi¬ 
ness transaction. Why did he not take the good 
advice that Harry gave him? 

4. He is more friendly than sincere. He appears to be 
a friend, but at heart he is not. 


The . . . the 


97 


1. Things were never more ont of order. 

2. Nothing was ever more in place. 

3. I was never more out of humor. 

4. Small hats were never more in style. 

5. That hat is most in keeping with your wardrobe. 

6. That rent is most in keeping with your salary. 

THE . , . . . THE, IN COMPARISONS 

1. The harder I study, the more I learn. 

2. The longer I stay, the better I like it. 

3. The more I get, the more I want. 

4. The farther I go, the more interested I become. 

5. The less you know about it, the better it is for you. 

6. The oftener you do it, the better. 

7. The sooner you go, the better. 

8. The faster you travel, the quicker you get there. 

9. The easier it is to do, the better I like it. 

10. The more he works, the stronger he becomes. 

11. The longer I know him, the less I like him. 

12. The later you are, the less you get. 

13. The longer he lives, the lazier he grows. 

14. The longer I listen, the more confused I become. 

15. The colder the winter is, the more fuel we burn. 

16. The more work he does, the more money he gets. 

17. They work all the harder, because they know the 
harder they work, the more money they will. get. 


98 


Common Measures 


COMMON MEASURES 

Note.— Tables of measures are found in the Appendix. 

1. She took the foot rule and measured her book. It 
is eight inches long, five inches wide, and one inch 
thick. 

2. The dimensions of the book are: length, eight inches; 
width, five inches; thickness, one inch. 

3. I shall measure this table and give you the measure¬ 
ments in feet and inches. 

4. The measurements are as follows: length, four feet; 
width, three feet; height, twenty-'eight inches, or two- 
feet, four inches. 

5. Jane will measure the cloth for her dress with a yard¬ 
stick. She needs three and a half yards to make 
her dress. 

6. John will go to the tailor’s to be measured for a 
suit. It takes three or four yards of material to make 
a man’s suit. 

7. Hattie will take the dimensions of her room for a 
new rug. She thinks a nine by twelve is the right 
size. 

8. The paper hanger will take the measurements of the 
room; then he will calculate the amount of paper 
needed to cover the walls and ceiling. 


1. She takes the pint bottle and measures the big bot¬ 
tle. It holds two pints or one quart. 

2. The capacity of the little bottle is one pint; and of 
the big bottle, a quart. 

3. Gasoline is sold by the gallon; that is, four quarts. 

4. Ask her what quantity of milk she wants. We have 
half-pint bottles, pint bottles, and quart bottles. 



Sentences 


99 


5. May says the capacity of her tea pot is three pints, 
but she wants one that holds more. 

6. The large vessel in the store contains about five gal¬ 
lons of vinegar. 

7. Rope is bought by the foot, cloth by the yard, milk 
by the pint, quart, or gallon. 

1. That line is too short. Let us lengthen it two inches. 

2. Lengthen the seat; widen it, and make it a little 
thicker. 

3. I do not like its height, it is too low; raise it about 
an inch and a half. 

4. Increase the size of the box. That one does not hold 
enough. 

5. We need more milk; ask the milkman to increase the 
quantity a pint. We need three pints. 

6. Ask the milkman to decrease our quantity of milk by 
one quart. We do not need two quarts a day. 

7. They will increase the capacity of the building. They 
will add two more rooms. 

What are the measurements of the table? 

What are the dimensions of the table? 

How long is it? wide is it? high is it? 

What is its length? its width? its height? 

What is the capacity of the bottle? 

How much does the bottle contain? 

How much does the bottle hold? 

What quantity does the bottle hold? 

What is the size of the table? of the bottle? 
of your hat ? of your shoes ? of the building ? 



100 


The different-difference perplexity 


THE DIFFERENT-DIFFERENCE PERPLEXITY 
Same, Differ, Different, Difference 

1. The books on the table are the same kind of books as 
those on the chair. 

2. She has two books that are the same in length, the 
same in width, and the same in color. 

3. Pie has two books that are different. They are the 
same in length and thickness, but they differ in 
width and color. 

4. My hat is the same color as yours, but it differs 
from yours in style. 

5. I wrote with this pen yesterday, now I want a dif¬ 
ferent one. 

6. There is no difference in the pronunciation of the 
two words, there and their, but there is a great 
difference in their spelling. 

7. Those two men came from the same country; they 
came at different times. One of them can speak four 
different languages. 

8. The weather of to-day is much different from that 
of yesterday. To-day is cold and clear, yesterday 
was cool and cloudy. 

9. I have a different idea of his writing than my teacher 
has. I think it is good, but she thinks it is not good. 

10. It is difficult for me to distinguish the difference in 
pronunciation between the words maw and men. 

11. I did not arrive in New York on the same day that 
my father arrived, because we set sail on different 
days; he set sail in March, and I set sail in April. 


Questions and answers 


101 


Is your pen different from his? 

No, it is not; they are just the same. 

Your pencil is different from mine, is it not?. 
It is different; yours is new T , and mine is old 
and worn. 

Are our books alike? 

They differ in size and color. 

What is the difference in the sizes of our hats? 
Mine is six and seven eighths, and yours is 
seven and a quarter. 


How does John’s knife differ from yours? 

The handle of his is larger than the handle of 
mine, and the blade of his is made of better 
steel. 

In what way does his watch differ from yours? 

His is made better than mine, and it keeps 
better time. 

Is there any difference in your pens? 

No, there is not; his pen and mine are both 
fountain pens of the same make. 

Is your hat like John’s? 

No, his is a lighter brown than mine, but 
mine is a lighter weight hat than his. 

What is the difference between your gloves 
and his ? 

His are new and clean; mine are old, soiled, 
and worn. 


102 


Expressing relative duration 


EXPRESSING RELATIVE DURATION 
(CONTINUOUS ACTION) 

Verbs. Present Participle 


Present 

Past 

Past Participle 

Present Participle 

am 

was 

been 

being 

answer 

answered 

answered 

answering 

become 

became 

become 

becoming 

buy 

bought 

bought 

buying 

come 

came 

come 

coming 

drink 

drank 

drunk 

drinking 

eat 

ate 

eaten 

eating 

get 

got 

got 

getting 

give 

gave 

given 

giving 

go 

went 

gone 

going 

keep 

kept 

kept 

keeping 

learn 

learned 

learned 

learning 

like 

liked 

liked 

liking 

look 

looked 

looked 

looking 

make 

made 

made 

making 

order 

ordered 

ordered 

ordering 

read 

read 

read 

reading 

return 

returned 

returned 

returning 

say 

said 

said 

saying 

sell 

sold 

sold 

selling 

send 

sent 

sent 

sending 

show 

showed 

showed 

showing 

sleep 

slept 

slept 

sleeping 

speak 

spoke 

spoken 

speaking 

stand 

stood 

stood 

standing 

stay 

stayed 

stayed 

staying 

stop 

stopped 

stopped 

stopping 

take 

took 

taken 

taking 

talk 

talked 

talked 

talking 

think 

thought 

thought 

thinking 

wait 

waited 

waited 

waiting 


Progressive.forms of the verb write 


103 


PROGRESSIVE FORMS OF THE VERB ‘ WRITE 1 
PRESENT, PAST, AND FUTURE TENSES 

Present Tense 

I am writing. We are writing. 

You are writing. You are writing. 

He is writing. They are writing. 


I was writing. 
You were writing. 
He was writing. 


Past Tense 

We were writing. 
You were writing. 
They were writing. 


Future 

I shall be writing. 

You will be writing. 

He will be writing. 


Tense 

We shall be writing. 
You will be writing. 
They will be writing. 


Negative 


I am not writing. 

You are not writing. 

He is not writing. 

I was not writing. 

You were not writing. 

He was not writing. 

I shall not be writing. 
You will not be writing. 
He will not be writing. 


We are not writing. 

You are not writing. 
They are not writing. 

We were not writing. 

You were not writing. 
They were not writing. 

We shall not be writing. 
You will not be writing. 
They will not be writing. 


The so-called progressive forms are not used to ex¬ 
press, or call attention to, or emphasize the long space 
of time through which some action lasts. But most in¬ 
stances of their use will be found to be cases in which 
they are used to express the relative duration within 
which some other action, express or implied, takes place. 


1. I was writing yesterday when you came in. 

2. While I am writing on the black board the teacher 
corrects my mistakes. 


104 


Expressing relative duration 


3. I am studying now. I was studying yesterday at 
this time, and I shall be studying again to-morrow 
at this time. 

4. You were talking and they were listening; we were 
not listening, we were talking. 

5. He is getting his books from the cupboard, and Mary 
and Jane are getting papers from the table. In a 
few minutes they will all be studying. 

6. Our teacher is teaching us; we are studying hard, 
and we are learning well. They also are learning 
well. 

7. Peter is telling Harry to come early in the morning. 
They will be sitting here when you come in the 
morning. 

8. When I was writing I was not answering my 
brother’s letter, but I was answering a letter that a 
friend of mine wrote me some time ago. 

9. I shall not be getting books to-morrow when I go to 
the store; but I shall be getting shoes, gloves, and 
a hat. 

10. They are not selling their new house, but they are 
selling their old one. They will be buying a new 
one soon. 

11. He is not going to stay long when he makes his 
visit in the fall. 

12. She is making a dress. She was making a coat 
when I saw her last week. Next week she will be 
making hats for her sister. 

13. He will be writing to his father in a few days, and 
he will be telling his father all about your visit here. 


Interrogative progressive forms 


105 


14. He was working last night, and he is sleeping now. 
Next week he will be working during the day and 
sleeping during the night. 

15. All last week I was working in the factory at the 
corner below; next week I shall be working with 
my brother in another place. 

16. I was not doing anything when you came in to-day, 
and 1 shall not be doing anything when you come 
to-morrow, because I am taking a rest for a few days. 

17. I am learning to do some new Work. When you 
come back, I shall be receiving more pay. 

18. Last night at 9 o’clock, we were sitting in the station 
waiting for our train. We noticed that many people 
were buying tickets for Chicago. 


Interrogative Progress Forms 


Am I writing? 

Are you writing? 
Is he writing? 


Are we writing? 
Are you writing? 
Are they writing? 


Was I writing? 
Were you writing? 
Was he writing? 


Were we writing? 
Were you writing? 
Were they writing? 


Shall I be writing? 
Shall you be writing? 
Will he be writing? 


Shall we be writing? 
Shall you be writing? 
Will they be writing? 


What is he doing now? 

What was he doing at this time yesterday? 
What will he be doing at this time to-morrow? 


106 


Relative duration 


PROGRESSIVE FORMS OF THE VERB ' WRITE PERFEECT TENSES 

Perfect (Present Perfect) Tense 

I have been writing. We have been writing. 

You have been writing. You have been writing. 

He has been writing. They have* been writing. 


Past Perfect Tense 


I had been writing. 

You had been writing. 

He had been writing. 

Future 

I shall have been writing. 
You will have been waiting. 
He will have been writing. 


We had been writing. 

You had been writing. 
They had been writing. 

Perfect Tense 

We shall have been writing. 
You will have been writing. 
They will have been writing. 


Negative Forms 


I have not been writing. 
You have not been writing. 
He has not been writing. 

I had not been writing. 
You had not been writing. 
He had not been writing. 

I shall not have been writ¬ 
ing. 

You will not have been 
writing. 

He will not have been 
writing. 


We have not been writing. 
You have not been writing. 
They have not been writing. 

We had not been writing. 
You had not been writing. 
They had not been writing. 

We shall not have been writ¬ 
ing. 

You will not have been 
writing. 

They will not have been 
writing. 


Sentences 


107 


1. I have been here since nine o’clock, and I have been 
writing since 9 :30. 

2. He has not been studying much to-day, but he has 
been talking all the time. 

3. We have been listening to some good music for the 
last half hour, and we shall be listening to it for 
another half hour. 

4. They have been studying since 8 o’clock. It is now 
8:30; by nine they will have been studying for one 

whole hour. 

5. On the third of next month we shall have been in 
America one year, and we shall have been in this 
place six months. 

6. In three months from now I shall not have learned 
to understand everything in English, but I shall have 
learned to understand much. 

7. I had been writing before you came in, and since 
you came I have been reading. By live o clock this 
afternoon I shall have been reading most of the day. 

8. He will* not have been here six months until the 
third of April, but I shall have been here six months 
by the third of May. 

9. I have been making payments on my house for two 
years. By this time next year I shall have made all 
the payments; then I shall be free from debt. 

10. I have been getting my suits at Kaufmann’s, but from 
* now on I shall be getting them at Kerr’s, the tailor’s. 

11. I have been thinking for some time that I should 
read more history, and John has been telling me so 
every day. 

12. I have been eating at a restaurant near here for a 
long time, but my work has just been changed, and 
now I shall eat all my meals at home. 


108 


Relative duration 


Interrogative Forms 


Have I been writing? 

Have you been writing? 
Has he been writing? 

Had I been writing? 

Had you been writing? 

Had he been writing? 

Shall I have been writing? 
Shall you have been writ¬ 
ing? 

Will he have been writ¬ 
ing? 


Have we been writing? 
Have you been writing? 
Have they been writing? 

Had we been writing? 

Had you been writing? 

Had they been writing? 

Shall we have been writing ? 
Shall you have been writ¬ 
ing? 

Will they have been writ¬ 
ing? 


Have I been sitting here for half an hour? 

You have been sitting here more than half an 
hour; you have been sitting here at least 
forty-five minutes. 

Has he been coming here every day? 

Yes, he has. 

By the middle of next week shall we have 
been living here six months? 

Yes, we shall. 

When they are doing this again will they be 
doing it for the third time? 

Yes, they will. 

He has been working for an hour, has he not? 

Yes, he has. 

They have been living here for some time, have 
they not? 

No, they have not. 


Hercules and The Wagoner 


109 


HERCULES AND THE WAGONER 

A wagoner was driving a heavy load along a muddy 
road. At last he came to a part of the road where the 
wheels sank half way into the mud; and the more the 
horses pulled, the deeper the wheels sank. The wagoner 
threw down his whip and knelt down to pray to Hercules. 

“0 Hercules, help me in this hour of trouble,’’ 
said he. 

“Tut, tut, man, do not kneel there. Get up and 
help your horses. The Gods help those that help them¬ 
selves. ’ ’ 


What was the wagoner doing? 

He was driving a heavy load along a road. 

Was the road good? 

No, it was very muddy. 

What happened? 

He came to a part of the road where the 
wheels sank into the mud. 

How deep did they sink? 

They sank half way. 

Could the horses not pull them out? 

No, the harder they pulled the deeper the 
wheels sank into the mud. 

What did the wagoner do? 

He knelt down and prayed to Hercules. 

Did Hercules take the wagon from the mud? 
He told the wagoner to get up' and help his 
horses. 

What did Hercules say? 

He said, ‘ ‘ The Gods help those that help them¬ 
selves. ’ ’ 


110 


The distinction between sit and sat 


THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN SIT AND SET 
Pres., sit; past, sat; past part., sat; pres, part., sitting 
Pres., set; past, set; past part., set; pres, part.., setting 

Sit is intransitive. Set is transitive. 

1. Set the box on the table and sit down. 

2. Sit down and set the box on the table. 

3. Set all of these bottles on that bench and sit there 
beside them. 

4. Set Mary on that little chair and let her sit there to 
look at the pictures. 

5. Sit down, please, and set your box on the floor. 

6. Set that boy down, and tell him to sit there for a 
half hour. 

7. Tell Mary to set a chair at the table; and then ask 
Mr. Green to sit on it and eat dinner with us. 

8. Harry set that box there an hour ago, and it has been 
there ever since. Please set it in the cupboard be¬ 
fore you sit down. 

9. Both John and Mary have been sitting on that bench 
a long time. I want them to sit there every day 
to study their lessons. 

10. On last Sunday I went to the railroad station to 
meet my uncle and aunt. They were both there sit¬ 
ting on the bench and waiting for me. 

11. I like to sit on the seashore at sunset, and to watch 
the boats go out to sea. 

12. I sat here yesterday, and I have been sitting here 
again to-day watching the children play in the water. 

13. Where are those children? A few minutes ago they 
were here, sitting on the floor, and setting blocks in 
a row on the edge of the rug. 


The verbs lie and lay 


111 


THE VERBS LIE AND LAY 
The Verb Lie (intransitive) 

Pres., lie ; past, lay; past part., lain; pres, part., lying 

1. Tell him to lie down and take a sleep to-day. 

2. We lay down yesterday and slept two hours. 

3. That book has lain there for three or four days. 

4. It was lying there when I went out day before 
yesterday. 

5. A little child is lying on the couch sleeping. She 
lay there yesterday also. 

The Verb Lay (transitive) 

Pres., lay; past, laid; past part., laid; pres, part., laying 

1. Now you see me lay the book on the table. 

2. I laid the book there last week. 

3. He has laid all the books on the table. 

4. Look at the little girl laying stones on the walk. 

1. I laid that paper there. Let it lie there until I 
come home. 

2. I have laid five letters on the table, and now I lay 
another there. 

3. When I lay down last night, I laid my watch on the 
dresser. 

4. At ten o ’clock I laid the paper down, and then I 
lay down to sleep. 

5. I laid that book there a long time ago, and it has 
lain there ever since. 

6. Lay the child down and let him lie there to sleep. 

7. He lay there all day yesterday; but now'he is up, 
and now he is laying cards on the window-sill. 


112 


The verbs leave, live, and die 


THE VERBS LEAVE, LIVE, AND DIE 

Present Past Past Participle Pres. Participle 
leave left left leaving 

live lived lived living (noun, life) 

died died died dying (noun, death ) 

The noun leaf, part of a plant, has leaves for its plural. 

1. Here are two dead leaves and two living leaves. 

2. The lack of water will cause the death of leaves. 

3. In the fall the leaves of most of our trees die, and 
the dead leaves fall to the ground. 

4. In the spring time the living leaves come, and the 
trees are made beautiful again. 

5. Tea is dried leaves of the tea plant. Millions of 
people -all over the world drink tea. This tea is made 
by pouring boiling water over the dried tea-leaves. 

6. He has lived here one year; but he will leave for 
Europe next month. 

7. He left this room an hour ago, and I see that he has 
left a package here. Before he leaves to-morrow, 
we shall give it to him. 

8. Mr. Mitchell has lived here for a long time, but he 
will leave to-morrow for another city. 

9. After I have lived here for a month or two, I shall 
leave and go to another part of the state. 

10. I had lived there ten years, when a man came along 
one day and bought my house. We left the place 
the next week. 

11. I put fifty dollars of my salary into the bank each 
month; that leaves me sixty dollars to use for ex¬ 
penses. I think I can live on that amount nicely. 


Sentences. Questions and answers 


113 


12. Some one told me that when Abraham Lincoln was 
a boy, he slept on a bag of leaves for a bed. And 
this boy lived to become president of the United States. 

13. Mr. Peterson is dead. I have just read of his death 
in the evening paper, which says that he died at the 
age of eighty-two. He lived a long, useful life. 

14. The paper states that he lived in the country until 
he was fifty years of age; then he left the country 
and came to the city to live. 

15. During his childhood he lived on a farm. After he 
had' finished his education in the public schools and 
in a business college, he 'began to work with his father 
on the farm. After his father’s death, Mr. Peterson 
became the owner of the farm, which he kept until he 
reached his fiftieth year. He then sold it, left the 
country, and moved to the city to live. 


How long have you lived here? 

I left Europe in 1910, and I have lived here 
ever since my arrival in this country. 

Did your brother leave Europe when you left? 

No, he left the following year. 

Where has he lived since he came to this 
country ? 

He lived in New York for a time; then he 
left New York and went to Chicago, where 
he has lived for several years. 

Does your cousin live in New York now? 

No, my cousin is dead; he died very soon after 
my brother left New York. 


114 


A business letter 


A BUSINESS LETTER 


504 Grant St., 
Pittsburgh, Pa. 
September 20,1924. 

Messrs. Solomon and Swartz, 

316 Smithfield St., 

Pittsburgh, Pa. 

Gentlemen: 

• In the Pittsburgh Sun of September 19, I read 
your advertisement inquiring for a Greek man to act 
as salesman and interpreter at your store. I am 
twenty-four years old, and I can read, write, and speak 
both Greek and English. I should like to talk with you 
about the position. Please let me know when I may 
come to see you. 

Yours very truly, 

Emanuel Demos. 


Envelope 


Pittsburgh, Pa. 

Emanuel Demos, 

504 Grant St. 

Messrs. Solomon & Swartz, 

316 Smithfield St., 

Pittsburgh, Pa. 



Shall and will. Speaker’s volition 


115 


SHALL AND WILL USED TO EXPRESS 
VOLITION OF THE SPEAKER 


I will 
Yon shall 
He shall 


We will 
Yon shall 
They shall 


Shall and ivill are nsed in making promises and 
threats and in expressing resolntion. 

I. Promises: 

I will give yon ten dollars. 

Yon shall have the money to-morrow. 

He also shall have ten dollars. 

II. Threats: 

I will discharge yon, if yon do not do the work 
better. 

He shall be discharged, if he does not report 
promptly for work. 

John shall be fined, if he commits the offense again. 

III. Resolution: 

I will have a good lesson to-morrow. 

Yon shall leave this place now. 

He shall not come here again; I do not want to 
see him. 

In all persons, will, when emphasized, expresses de¬ 
termination on the part of the subject. 

I will do it, though yon forbid it. 

Yon will speak quickly, in spite of all my advice. 
He will waste his time, no matter what I say. 

Willingness expressed by an adjective: 

I shall be glad to see yon. 

I shall be u'illing to do it. 

I shall be charmed to talk with him. 

The words glad, willing, and charmed, themselves, ex¬ 
press willingness. 


116 


The Man, The Boy, and The Donkey 


Willingness expressed by an adverb: 

I will gladly see yon. 

I will willingly do it. 


Will you write often? 

I will. 

Will yon let me help you? 

Yes, I will. 

Will yon be so kind as to lend me a pen? 

I will. 

John: Frank, shall Peter go? 

Frank: Yes, Peter shall go; I will discharge 
him to-day. 

John: Shall James go too? 

Frank: Yes, James shall go too; we have no 
use for either of them. 

THE MAN, THE BOY, AND THE DONKEY 

A man and his son and their donkey were once 
going to market. As they passed along the road, they 
met a countryman who said, “Yon fools, why do yon 
not ride? Of what use is the donkey but to ride on?” 
The man put the boy on the donkey, and they traveled 
on; and in a short time they met a group of men. One 
of the men said, “Look at that lazy boy. He rides and 
lets his tired father walk.” Then the father told the 
boy to walk and let him ride; and again they went on 
their way. But next, they met a group of women, one 
of whom said, “What a lazy man, to ride and let that 
little boy walk.” The father did not know what to do; 
so he put the boy before him on the donkey and they 
both rode on. By and by they came to a town where 
the people began to jeer at them. The father asked 
them why they jeered. Somebody said, “Why do yon 
overload the little donkey in that way?” 



Explanatory exercise 


117 


The man and the boy both got off and tried to 
think of another plan. At last they cut a pole. They 
tied the donkey’s feet together and hung him on the 
pole; then they raised the pole to their shoulders and 
went on, carrying the donkey. All who met them 
laughed; but they continued on their way until they 
came to a bridge, when the donkey kicked out and caused 
the boy to drop his end of the pole. Then the donkey 
fell over the bridge into the water and was drowned. 
“That will teach you a lesson,” said an old man who 
had followed them. “Try to please all, and you please 
no one.” 


were once going (going at some time in the past) 

I was once going along a country road, when I saw 
many beautiful wild flowers. 

passed along (went through the length of the road) 

As they passed along the street, we watched them. 

what is the use (what is the purpose) 

What is the use in going to the station a half hour 
before the train goes? Answer; There is no use 
in doing that. 

people began (commenced) 

People began to advise me what to do. 

went on their way (continued to travel) 

They went on their way to New York yesterday. 

What a lazy boy! (The boy is lazy) 

What a lazy boy he is! He will not work. 

What an easy lesson! (This lesson is very easy.) 

What an easy lesson we had to-day! I learned it in 
ten minutes. 


try to 

I shall try to learn these lessons well. 


118 


Going to, expressing future time 


GOING TO, EXPRESSING FUTURE TIME 


I am going (intend) to take a walk this afternoon. 


a trip, 
a bath, 
a sleep, 
a rest, 
a vacation, 
an interest in this. 


an active part in the meeting. 

a lesson in English. 

the opportunity to do it. 

his suggestion. 

his advice. 

his warning. 


I am going (intend) to do my work. 

the reading, 
the talking, 
the cleaning, 
the cooking, 
the paper over. 


my writing now. 
my walking at noon, 
my part of the work, 
my lessons, 
my best. 


I am going (intend) to make a journey. 


a speech, 
a suggestion, 
a criticism, 
a visit. 

an investigation. 


a call, 
a sale. 

an investment, 
the beds, 
the bread. 


I am going (intend) to give a talk. 

warning, 
an order, 
a party 
a command. 


some advice, 
a lesson, 
an opportunity, 
an example. 


The use of linking verbs 


119 


THE USE OF LINKING (COPULATIVE) VERBS 

1. Frank is a student in our school, and his brother also 
will become a member of this class. 

2. Frank proved to be a scholar. He is the best in his 
class. When I told him so, he turned red because he 
was embarrassed. 

3. He grows stronger and stronger in English the longer 
he comes here. He seems master of the subject. 

4. His brother’s plan is to come here daily with Frank. 
Then they will both become masters of English. 

5. John has just now come in. He looks tired, and he 
sounds tired. When he gets rested he will become 
interested in what we are doing. 

6. The dinner smells good, and I am sure it will taste 
good also. We are all hungry; so let us go to the 
dining room now and eat. 

7. When I saw him he seemed discouraged; but after 
I had talked with him for a while he looked better 
and sounded more cheerful. 

8. Do you hear Harry’s voice? He sounds exited; he 
looks angry too. I thought he was becoming friendly 
to Peter, but they prove to be enemies still. 

9. I am getting interested in the study of languages, 
and I hope that sometime I shall become able to 
speak several languages fluently. 

10. Joe looked pleased when he heard that his brother 
had become mayor of the city. Joe said that he 
knew that his brother would prove a good man for 
the position. 


120 


The use of linking* verbs 


FORMS FOR USE IN MAKING SENTENCES 

< 


Copulative or Linking Verbs 

I. With predicate nominative: 

Sentence: Mr. Green is president. 

Sentence 

Subject Verb Complement 

John is president (noun) 

II. With predicate adjective: 

Sentence: The pencils are short. 

Sentence 

Subject Verb Complement 

The pencils are short (adjective) 


SOME COPULATIVE OR LINKING VERBS 


Present 

Past 

am 

was 

become 

became 

grow 

grew 

turn 

turned 

seem 

seemed 

feel 

felt 

get 

got 

look 

looked 

prove 

proved 

taste 

tasted 

smell 

smelled 

sound 

sounded 


Pres. Part. 

Past Part. 

been 

being 

become 

becoming 

grown 

growing 

turned 

turning 

seemed 

seeming 

felt 

feeling 

got 

getting 

looked 

looking 

proved 

proving 

tasted 

tasting 

smelled 

smelling 

sounded 

sounding 




Complements used with linking verbs 


121 


Some Nouns and Adjectives to be Used as Comple¬ 
ments with Copulative (Linking) Verbs: 


Nouns 

architect 

boss 

buyer 

carpenter 

clerk 

cousin 

director 

druggist 

floor-walker 

friend 

grocer 

laborer 

manager 

officer 

owner 

painter 

policeman 

pupil 

plasterer 

plumber 

salesman 

saleswoman 

superintendent 

stenographer 

stranger 

tailor 

tenant 

teacher 

tinner 


Adjectives 

active 

accurate 

ambitious 

careful 

careless 

capable 

delicate 

energetic 

frail 

happy 

healthy 

heavy 

inactive 

inaccurate 

incapable 

intelligent 

jolly 

lazy 

light 

lively 

noisy 

right 

sad 

short 

stupid 

stout 

slender 

strong 

tall 


Past Participles 
as Adjectives 
angered 
alarmed 
confused 
contented 
defeated 
depressed 
disappointed 
discouraged 
disturbed 
dissatisfied 
dressed 
educated 
elected 
encouraged 
enlightened 
excited 
frightened 
gratified 
interested 
occupied 
persuaded 
refined 
satisfied 
surprised 
shocked 
troubled 
uneducated 
uninformed 
unrefined 


Note. _Do not use the adverb very to modify a past par¬ 

ticiple: ‘He is much confused;’ ‘He is very much 
confused’ (not, He is very confused). 


122 


The North Wind and The Sun 


THE NORTH WIND AND THE SUN 


A dispute arose between the North Wind and the 
Sun, each claiming that he was stronger than the other. 
At last they agreed to try their powers upon a traveler 
to see which could soonest make him take off his coat. 
The North Wind made the first trial, and gathering 
up all his forces for the attack, he came whirling furious¬ 
ly down upon the man. He caught up the man’s coat 
as though he would tear it from him by one single effort. 
The harder the Wind blew, the more closely the man 
drew his coat around him. 

Then came the turn of the Sun. At first he beamed 
gently upon the traveler, who soon unbuttoned his 
coat and walked on with it hanging loosely about his 
shoulders. The Sun then shone forth in his full strength; 
and the man, before he had gone many steps, was glad 
to take off his coat and finish his journey more lightly 
dressed. 


ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE 


Active 

I call. 

I called. 

I shall call. 

I have called. 

I had called. 

I shall have called. 


Passive 

I am called. 

I was called. 

I shall be called. 

I have been called. 

I had Ibeen called. 

I shall have been called. 


I do not call. 

I did not call. 

I shall not call. 

I have not called. 

I had not called. 

I shall not have called. 


I am not called. 

I was not called. 

I shall not be called. 

I have not been called. 

I had not been called. 

I shall not have been called. 


Action and passive voice. Sentences 


123 


Do I call? 

Did I call? 

Shall I call? 

Have I called? 

Had I called? 

Shall I have called? 


Am I called? 

Was I called? 

Shall I be called? 

Have I been called? 

Had I been called? 

Shall I have been called? 


Note.— The forms of the passive voice are made by ad¬ 
ding the past participle of the verb to the proper 
finite forms of the verb be. 

1. I shall go to study now, for I have been called by 
my teacher. 

2. We shall be given a new lesson next week; all these 
lessons havfe been learned well. 

3. His house is not built yet; the material from which 
it is to be built has not been bought. 

4. She has been taught for three weeks, and he will 
have been taught for six months this coming Friday. 

5. The thief who has tried so hard to escape has been 
caught by a policeman. 

6. The meat and fhe potatoes have all been eaten; the 
meat was eaten before I came. All the milk has been 
drunk too. 

7. By the last of next week I shall have been called 
to Chicago, but I shall not have gone then. 

8. It is said that a large sum of money is needed to 
build the church. The lot has been selected, and the 
architect’s plans have been completed. 

9. My name is John, but I am never called John; I am 
always called Jack. 

10. That tree has just been blown down by the wind; It 
had stood there for many years, but at last it has 
been taken away. 

11. A meeting will be held next Tuesday evening. We 
shall hold it in the new hall on Fifth Avenue. 


124 


Conjugation of the verb be 


PRINCIPAL PARTS AND CONJUGATION OF THE 
VERB BE 

Present, am; past, was past participle, been; 
present participle, being. 


Indicative Mood 


Singular Number 

Plural Number 

I am. 

We are. 

You are. 

You are. 

He is. 

They are. 


Past Tense 

I was. 

We were. 

You were. 

You were. 

He was. 

They were. 


Future Tense 

I shall be. 

We shall be. 

You will be. 

You will be. 

He will be. 

They will be. 

Present 

(Present Perfect) Tense 

I have been. 

We- have been. 

You have been. 

You have been. 

He has been. 

They have been. 

Past Perfect Tense 

I had been. 

We had been. 

You had been. 

You had been. 

He had been. 

They had been. 

Future Perfect Tense 

I shall have been. 

We shall have been. 

You will have been. 

You will have been. 

He will have been. 

They will have been. 


Infinitive: Present, to be; Perfect, to have been . 
Participles: Present, being; Past, been; Perfect, having 
been. 


A list of verbs 


125 


A LIST OF VERBS 


call 

called 

called 

calling 

teach 

taught 

taught 

teaching 

build 

built 

built 

building 

catch 

caught 

caught 

catching 

try 

tried 

tried 

trying 

need 

needed 

needed 

needing 

blow 

blew 

blown 

blowing 

hold 

held 

held 

holding 

bite 

bit 

bitten 

biting 

break 

broke 

broken 

breaking 

burst 

burst 

burst 

bursting 

choose 

chose 

chosen 

choosing 

clothe 

clothed 

clothed 

clothing 

cost 

cost 

cost 

costing 

cut 

cut 

cut 

cutting 

fall 

fell 

fallen 

falling 

feed 

fed 

fed 

feeding 

find 

found 

found 

finding 

fly 

flew 

flown 

flying 

forget 

forgot 

forgotten 

forgetting 

grind 

ground 

ground 

grinding 

hang 

hung 

hung 

hanging 

keep 

kept 

kept 

keeping 

lay 

laid 

laid 

laying 

leave 

left 

left 

leaving 

lend 

lent 

lent 

lending 

lie 

lay 

lain 

lying 

light 

lit, lighted 

lit, lighted 

lighting 

mean 

meant 

meant 

meaning 

ring 

rang 

rung 

ringing 

rise 

rose 

risen 

rising 

sit 

sat 

sat 

sitting 

set 

set 

set 

setting 

shoot 

shot 

shot 

shooting 

spell 

spelled 

spelled 

spelling 

spill 

spilled 

spilled 

spilling 


126 


Conjugation of verb be 


INTERROGATIVE FORMS OF THE VERB ‘BE* 


Present Tense 


Am I? 

Are we? 

Are you? 

Are you? 

Is he? 

Are they? 

Past Tense 

Was I? 

Were we? 

Were you? 

Were you? 

Was he? 

Were they? 

Future Tense 

Shall I be? 

Shall we be? 

Shall you be? 

Shall you be? 

Will he be? 

Will they be? 

Present (Present Perfect) Tense 

Have I been? 

Have we been? 

Have you been? 

Have you been? 

Has he been? 

Have they been? 

Past 

Perfect Tense 

Had I been? 

Had we been? 

Had you been? 

Had you been? 

Had he been? 

Had they been? 

Future 

Perfect Tense 

Shall I have been? 

Shall we have been? 

Shall you have been? 

Shall you have been? 

Will he have been? 

Will they have been? 

NEGATIVE FORMS 

Singular Number 

Plural Number 

I am not. 

We are not. 

I was not. 

We were not. 

I shall not be. 

We shall not be. 

I have not been. 

We have not been. 

I had not been. 

We had not been. 

I shall not have been. 

We shall not have be 


A list of verbs 127 

A LIST OF VERBS 


Present 

Past 

advise 

advised 

announce 

announced 

anticipate 

anticipated 

arrange 

arranged 

attract 

attracted 

believe 

'believed 

doubt 

doubted 

expect 

expected 

foretell 

foretold 

forget 

forgot 

hesitate 

hesitated 

hope 

hoped 

influence 

influenced 

inform 

informed 

learn 

learned 

mention 

mentioned 

notify 

notified 

order 

ordered 

persuade 

persuaded 

predict 

predicted 

promise 

promised 

remember 

remembered 

remind 

reminded 

report 

reported 

say 

said 

settle 

settled 

suggest 

suggested 

suspect 

suspected 

tell 

told 

think 

thought 

want 

wanted 

wish 

wished 


Past 

Present 

Participle 

Participle 

advised 

advising 

announced 

announcing 

anticipated 

anticipating 

arranged 

arranging 

attracted 

attracting 

believed 

believing 

doubted 

doubting 

expected 

expecting 

foretold 

foretelling 

forgotten 

forgetting 

hesitated 

hesitating 

hoped 

hoping 

influenced 

influencing 

informed 

informing 

learned 

learning 

mentioned 

mentioning 

notified 

notifying 

ordered 

ordering 

persuaded 

persuading 

predicted 

predicting 

promised 

promising 

remembered 

remembering 

reminded 

reminding 

reported 

reporting 

said 

saying 

settled 

settling 

suggested 

suggesting 

suspected 

suspecting 

told 

telling 

thought 

thinking 

wanted 

wanting 

wished 

wishing 


128 


Joining sentences together 


JOINING SENTENCES TOGETHER 

I. Using co-ordinating connectives: 

1. Sentence: I met Will to-day. 

2. Sentence: I talked with Will to-day. 

3. Sentence: I met Will to-day, and I talked with him. 

And, co-ordinating conjunction 

1. Sentence: I was here last week. 

2. Sentence: You were not her last week. 

3. Sentence: I was here last week, but you were not 

here then. 

But, co-ordinating conjunction 

II. Using subordinating connectives: 

1. Sentence: I shall study. 

2. Sentence: I receive a book. 

3. Sentence: I shall study when I receive a book. 

When subordinates I receive a book to the 
verb shall study. 

1. Sentence: The book lies there. 

2. Sentence: The book is mine. 

3. Sentence: The book that lies there is mine. 

That is a pronoun because it stands for book. 
It also joins the clause that lies there to 
the noun book, and is, therefore, a re¬ 
lative pronoun. 

Co-ordinating and Subordinating Connectives 

Make sentences and join them together with the 
following connectives: 

I. Co-ordinating Connectives: 


and 

then 

moreover 

or 

yet 

therefore 

but 

still 

nevertheless 

for 

however 

notwithstanding 


Connectives 


129 


Some conjunctions go in pairs, one with each of the 
things joined, as both John and Mary. 

both.and either..or 

not only....but also neither.nor 

II. Subordinating C jnnectives: 

1. Relative Pronouns: 


who 

whoever 


which 

whichever 


what 

whatever 


that 

as (with 

such or same 

- 

the main clause) 

. Relative Adverbs: 

where 

after 

how 

wherever 

before 

why 

when 

till 

as 

whenever 

until 


while 

since 



3. Interrogative Pronouns: 

who, which, and what 

4. Interrogative Adverbs: 

when, where, how, and why 

5. Subordinating Conjunctions: 


because 

although 

that 

whether 


since 

if 

lest 

whether. 

.or 

though 

unless 

than 




Phrases Used as Subordinating Conjunctions: 

in order that as if 

in case that as though 

provided that even if 

so that 







130 


Joining sentences together 


1. I shall eat my breakfast; then I shall go to work. 

2. He has been told to speak slowly; still he does not 
take the advice that has been given to him. 

3. We have no confidence in him; hoivever, we shall do 
what he asks us to do. 

4. He may have two days off work to visit his friends; 
moreover, he may have his pay for the days he is 
absent from his work. 

5. I have no time to spare; therefore, I shall not go to¬ 
morrow. 

6. Mr. Ramsey is a slow workman; nevertheless, we shall 
employ him, because he is a good workman. 

7. He is going to buy that house; notwithstanding that 
he has been told that it is not worth the money he 
is about to pay for it. 

8. The man who came in just now, and ivho has a news¬ 
paper in his hand, is Mr. Davis’s brother. 

9. The red hat, which Miss White has in her hand, is 
a new one. 

10. She said that whoever wishes may sit here. 

11. You may have whichever one you want. 

12. He will do whatever you wish him to do for you. 

13. I never before saw such beautiful flowers as these are. 

14. Take this dictionary with you wherever you go. 

15. He always comes to see us whenever he can. 

16. You were working while he was eating. 

17. He came in after you went out. 

18. They will stay here till you come. 

19. She has been here since you came. 


Economy 


131 


ECONOMY 

Mr. Johnson received his pay to-day, and after set¬ 
tling his bills, made a payment on his house. He still 
had some money left with which to make a small deposit 
in his savings account. He said that he could save more 
money next month because he had everything that he 
needed for a while. Each month he makes a small de¬ 
posit in the bank, and he says that it is surprising how 
quickly one can save quite a sum. 

I told Jack about Mr. Johnson’s habit of saving 
money. I thought that I could persuade Jack to do like¬ 
wise. He ought to save a little out of each month’s pay; 
but here he is without a penny. He is inclined to spend 
all that he earns, and more too. He is always in debt 
and always wanting to borrow from his friends. It is 
embarrassing to refuse him money. Some day he will 
regret this extravagance, I am sure. But he will not 
take advice from anyone. I think, however, that I shall 
try once more to persuade him to save, because I do 
want him to lay up a little for the future. I want him 
to feel as I do, that a penny saved is a penny earned. 

1. What did Mr. Johnson do with his pay? 

2. Did he spend all the money that he received? 

3. What did he do with the money that he had left 
after he paid his bills. 

4. What did he say about next month’s pay? 

5. What is Mr. Johnson in the habit of doing with each 
month’s pay? 

6. Has he saved much? 

7. Did you ever tell Jack how Mr. Johnson saves his 
money ? 

8. Does Jack have a large bank account? 

9. Jack does not spend all his money, does*he? 

10. Where does he get all the money he spends? 


132 


Tag interrogates 


TAG INTERROGATIVES 

1. He is here, is he not? 

He is not here, is he? 

2. They were at home, were they not? 

They were not at home, were they? 

3. They have an automobile, have they not? 

They do not have an automobile, do they? 

4. He ate his lunch at twelve, did he not? 

He did not eat his lunch at twelve, did he? 

5. He writes well, does he not? 

He does not write well, does he? 

6. This can be done by him, can it not? 

This cannot be done by him, can it? 

7. He may go with me, may he not? 

He may not go with me, may he? 

8. I am writing well, am I not? 

I am not writing well, am I? 

9. This was well read, was it not? 

This was not well read, was it? 

10. This will be finished before we go at noon, will it not? 
This will not be finished before we go at noon, will it? 

11. Frank is becoming tired, is he not? 

Frank is not becoming tired, is he? 

12. These are the best apples you have, are they not? 
These are not the best apples you have, are they? 

13. You were here yesterday, were you not? 

You were not here yesterday, were you? 

14. She told you to write the letter, did she not? 

She did not tell you to write the letter, did she? 


Some idiomatic expressions 


133 


SOME IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS 
The learner will acquire the precise meanings (exact 
shades of meaning) from use; he will find in the paren¬ 
theses indications of the meanings, more or less accurate, 
that will serve for the time being. 

1. after a while (in a short time) 

I shall go after a while. 

2. all at once (suddenly) 

All at once the rain began to fall. 

3. before long (soon) 

He will come before long. 

4. break up (stop) 

They will break up the meeting. 

5. bring about (to cause to be) 

They brought about an agreement. 

6. blind to (ignorant of) 

I am not blind to their actions. 

7. close at hand (near) 

I keep my dictionary close at hand. 

8. come about (happen) 

How did it come about? 

9. come by (obtain or get) 

How did he come by all that money? 

10. come on (advance) 

The work is coming on well. 

11. do without (dispense with) 

I shall do without my lunch to-day. 

12. find out (learn) 

I cannot find out who did it. 

13. get away (escape) 

The thief tried to get away. 


134 


Some idiomatic expressions 


14. get up (arise) 

I shall get up at six o’clock. 

15. get through (finish) 

I must get through with my work soon. 

16. get to (arrive) 

They will get to the city to-morrow. 

17. get behind (falling back) 

He is getting behind with his lessons. 

18. go against (oppose) 

I shall not go against his wishes. 

19. going on (happening) 

What is going on in the street? 

20. go out (be extinguished) 

The fire went out. 

21. go through 

I shall go through your paper again, (read again) 

22. hold back (delay) 

The rain will hold back the work. 

23. more or less (approximately) 

There are ten, more or less. 

24. out and out (entire) 

It. was an out and out failure. 

25. on foot (walking) 

They came on foot. 

26. on foot (in existence) 

There is a movement on foot to stop that nuisance. 

27. once in a while (occasionally) 

I go there once in a while. 

28. put by (save) 

He has put by some money. 


Sentences 


135 


29. put off (postpone) 

The meeting is put off until to-morrow. 

30. put out (expel) 

He was put out of the club. 

31. put out (extinguish) 

The fire was quickly put out. 

32. put an end to (stop) 

They put an end to the argument. 

33. put up (offer for sale) 

It was put up at a low price. 

34. put up (preserve) 

I put up some fruit to-day. 

35. put up with (endure) 

I cannot put up with that noise. 

36. pour in (come in great numbers) 

The people came pouring in at five o’clock. 

37. run after (pursue) 

The policeman ran after the thief. 

38. run away (flee) 

The child ran away from home. 

39. run across (encounter) 

Where did you run across that book? 

40. run out (come to an end) 

The supplies have run out. 

41. run on (continue) 

Do not let the debt run on. 

42. run up (increase) 

The price has run up. 

43. see about (attend to) 

Let us see about that business. 


136 


The uses of adjectives and adverbs 


CHARACTERISTIC 

VERBS 

The wind blows. 

The birds fly. 

The wind howls. 

The (birds chirp. 

The wind falls. 

The bird sings. 

The clouds fly. 

The dog barks. 

The clouds scatter. 

The dog howls. 

The rain falls. 

The cat mews. 

The rain pours. 

The cat purrs. 

The rain beats down. 

The cow lows. 

The thunder roars. 

The horse neighs. 

The sun rises. 

The clock ticks. 

The sun shines. 

The clock strikes. 

The sun sets. 

The clock runs. 

The moon shines. 

The flag waves. 

The stars twinkle. 

The flag flies. 

The street car runs. 

The hinge creaks. 


THE USES OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 
The following words may be used as adjectives or 
as adverbs: 


right 


high 

worse 

wrong 


low 

worst 

well 


better 

early 

fast 


best 

late 

hard 


near 

cheap 

little 


far 

dear 


1. He does not have the right book, (adjective) 
He did not pronounce the word right, (adverb) 

2. They have the wrong books, (adjective) 

They spelled the words wrong, (adverb) 

3. He is a well man now. (adjective) 

He does his work well, (adverb) 

4. I came on a fast train, (adjective) 

He writes fast, (adverb) 

5. They have some hard work to do. (adjective) 
They worked hard to-day. (adverb) 


Sentences 


137 


Some adverbs are formed by adding -ly to adjectives. 


Adjectives 

Adverbs 

extravagant 

extravagantly 

careful 

carefully 

successful 

successfully 

abundant 

abundantly 

kind 

kindly 

thoughtful 

thoughtfully 

thankful 

thankfully 

grateful 

gratefully 

economical 

economically 

quick 

quickly 

prompt 

promptly 

immediate 

immediately 

cheerful 

cheerfully 

hasty 

hastily 

He is an extravagant man. 

(adjective) 


He spends his money extravagantly, (adverb) 

2. He is a careful worker, (adjective) 

He works carefully, (adverb) 

3. Frank is a successful business man. (adjective) 
Frank has carried on his business successfully, (adverb) 

4. We have an abundant supply of everything, (adjective) 
We have been abundantly supplied with everything, 
(adverb) 

5. He spoke in a kind manner, (adjective) 

He spoke kindly, (adverb) 

6. Margaret is a thoughtful girl, (adjective) 

Margaret very thoughtfully offered to help me. 
(adverb) 

7. We are thankful to you. (adjective) 

He received it very thankfully, (adverb) 


138 


Expressions of indefinite reference 


WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS OF INDEFINITE 
REFERENCE 

1. Let me have a book, please. 

2. A man came in just now. 

3. I should like an orange. 

4. Two are gone, (two used without a noun). 

5. One does not like one’s word to be disputed. 

6. A person does not enjoy all work and no play. 

7. A few may still believe the earth to be flat. 

8. Somebody put his book on my desk. 

9. Everybody has his troubles. 

10. Let every one put his hat on a hook. 

11. All are not willing to come to school. 

12. Some never get much learning. 

13. None are more interested than Susan is. 

14. No one has given me his paper. 

15. Many there are who would like to be here. 

16. Two or three came in late. 

17. Does any one object to this? 

18. Each hurries out of the room when*the bell rings. 

19. There are some who speak better than I. 

20. Those two quarrel with each other. 

21. Those three quarrel with one another. 

22. Several came without pencils. 

23. Everything that is spoken here is useful to me. 

24. Whoever wishes may have this book. 


Sentences 


139 


25. Whatever you say I believe. 

26. There are three books here. Each has its merits. 

27. He has two dogs; but neither will bite you. 

28. One of these days I shall go to the park. 

29. I have no pen. Are there any in that box? 

30. I do not like either of those. Such as I want are too 
expensive for me to buy. 

31. Neither has a pen. 

32. He knows, and he is the very one to tell you all 
about it. 

33. He is the very person that I have wanted to meet. 

34. Here is some one’s pen; it is not mine. 

Else, meaning in addition to, may be added to some of 
these words of indefinite reference. 

1. Ralph took a pen, and some one else took a pencil. 

2. These two students may write; and everybody else 
may read. 

3. Have you anything else to say before we part? 

4. Is there anything else that we can do for him? 

5. I have a dictionary, but no one else has one. 

6. Your hat is there. Who else’s is there? 

7. There is a box on the table. Everything else has been 
taken away. 

8. Leave the paper, but take everything else . 

9. Take the book, and whatever else you want. 

10. Andrew wrote a good paper, and some one else wrote 
a good one too. 


140 


John Vanos 


Any is generally used for some in interrogative, 
negative, and conditional sentences, and in expressions 
of doubt. 

1. I have some ink; have you any ? 

2. Do you suppose there are any pens in the cupboard? 

3. I wonder where there is any ink. 

4. If I should get any ink, I should give you some. 

5. If I have any time to-day, I shall study some. 


JOHN VANOS 

John Vanos came to this country eight or ten years 
ago. He came alone, and when he had been here a 
short time, he became established in business; then he 
sent for his wife and two children, a boy and a girl. Now 
they live in a nice home on Fifth Avenue, and they all 
speak the English language very well. Mr. Vanos went 
to night school for a while after he first came, and when 
he knew the language pretty well be began business. 
When Mrs. Vanos and the children came, the children 
were sent to the public school, and Mr. Vanos took his 
wife to the same night school in which he had been 
taught. 

Now Mr. Vanos has one of the largest and best 
grocery stores on Penn Avenue. Before he came to this 
country, he was a fruit dealer, and he had had some ex¬ 
perience as a store keeper. He has a large trade here, 
and people like to deal at his store. They say that he 
keeps the best and freshest vegetables that can be 
bought in the city, and that his prices are entirely satis¬ 
factory. His customers can always rely absolutely upon 
what he says. He delivers promptly, and that, too, 
pleases the people. 

His daughter is thirteen, and she is to be given a 
good education. She will not only be given a college edu- 


Phrases having the office of prepositions 


141 


cation, but she will be given a thorough course at the 
Musical Institute. His son is now sixteen, and he will 
soon graduate from the high school, and will then go to 
college. After his graduation there, he expects to be¬ 
come a partner in his father's business. It will be a 
great advantage to the son to take up a business that 
is so well established. Both Mr and Mrs. Vanos have 
worked hard; and it is a great satisfaction to them to 
know that they have been able to provide so well for their 
children. 

PHRASES HAVING THE OFFICE OF 
PREPOSITIONS 

1. according to 

I did this work according to directions. 

2. because of 

They stayed at home because of the rain. 

3. in place of 

Use this paper in place of that. 

4. from under 

Take that book from under the box. 

5. in addition to 

I want a pen in addition to a pencil. 

6. in case of 

In case of fire we can use the fire-escapes. 

7. with regard to 

He is telling me something with regard to the man¬ 
agement of the club. 

8. in spite of 

I got it in spite of his objections. 

9. by way of 

I shall go by way of the lake. 

10. in front of 

It stands in front of the house. 


142 Negative, interrogative, and emphatic sentences 

FORMING NEGATIVE, INTERROGATIVE, AND EM¬ 
PHATIC SENTENCES. CONCISE REPETITION. 

All negative sentences are formed by placing not after 
one or another of the twenty-three verb-forms printed on 
the next page. 

The formal means used to indicate that a sentence asks 
a question are: (1) intonation; (2) separate interrogative 
words (See next page) ; (3) word order (Verb Subject). 
The normal word-order of a sentence that makes a state¬ 
ment is Subject Verb. Questions that can be answered 
with yes or no are expressed by inverting the order of the 
corresponding statement into Verb Subject. Questions that 
cannot be answered with yes or no are questions intro¬ 
duced by interrogative pronouns, adjectives, or adverbs. 
All these require the inverted word-order, except sentences 
with interrogative pronouns used as subjects, which retain 
the normal word-order of Subject Verb. 

Now, inverting the normal word-order of a sentence is 
a matter of some difficulty because the only verb-forms 
that modem English usage permits to precede their sub¬ 
jects for any purpose are the twenty-three mentioned 
above. Consequently, a sentence containing any other 
verb-form is inverted by using one of the twenty-three as 
auxiliary followed by the subject and the significant part 
of the verb-form in question. For example, corresponding 
to He went, is not Went he?, but Did he go? And, ‘Will 
he have returned by to-morrow V 

An affirmative sentence is made emphatic by using 
one of these verbs, which is stressed in oral speech. For 
example: I do understand. I cannot do it. I must go. 

These verbs may also be used for the purpose of re¬ 
peating a thought without the unpleasant repetition of 
the exact words. For example: I can come next week, and 
so can you, (come next week.) I never knew that Jane 
had gone away, neither did you. (know it.) 


Verbs important for sentence structure 


143 


Verbs of Special Importance for Sentence Structure. 


I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 


1. am 

am not 


Am I . 

9 

2. is 

is not 

isn’t 

Is he _ T _ 

A 

3. are 

are not 

aren’t 

Are they _ 

A 

4. were 

were not 

weren’t 

Were they . 

9 

5. was 

was not 

wasn’t 

Was he . 

? 

6. have 

have not 

haven’t 

Have they . 

9 

7. had 

had not 

hadn’t 

Had he . 

' 9 

8. has 

has not 

hasn’t 

Has he . 

9 

9. do 

do not 

don’t 

Do I . 

9 

10. did 

did not 

didn’t 

Did he . 

9 

11. does 

does not 

doesn’t 

Does he . 

9 

12. shall 

shall not 

shan’t 

Shall I . 

9 

13. should 

should not 

shouldn’t 

Should I . 

A 

14. will 

will not 

won’t 

Will you . 

9 

15. would 

would not 

wouldn’t 

Would you . 

9 

16. can 

cannot 

can’t 

Can he . 

9 

17. could 

could not 

couldn’t 

Could he . 

A 

18. may 

may not 

mayn’t 

Mav I . 

? 

19. might 

might not 

mightn’t 

Might we . 

9 

20. must 

must not 

mustn’t 

Must I . 

9 

21. ought 

ought not 

oughtn’t 

Ought I (to)... 

A 

22. need 

need not 

needn’t 

Need I . 

... ? 

23. dare 

dare not 

daren’t 

Dare I . 

9 


Separate Interrogative Words: 

(а) Interrogative Pronouns, who, whose, whom 

(masculine and feminine), which and what, 
(neuter) ; 

(б) Interrogative Adjectives, which and what ; 

(c) Interrogative Adverbs, when, where, whence, 
whither, how, why. 




















144 Negative, interrogative, and emphatic sentences 


CONTRACTIONS 


In colloquial speech the verbs-forms, am, is, are, 
have, had, has, will, and would are usually contracted 
and joined with the preceding noun or pronoun. 


I’d, I had. 
he’s, he has. 
he’ll, he will, 
he’d, he would, 
there’s, there is. 
here’s, here is. 


I’m, I am. 
he’s, he is. 
it’s, it is. 


we’re, we are. 
I’ve, I have. 


You’re ready to go to town, aren’t you? Let’s go, 
I’m ready. I haven’t been there for a long time. I’m 
ready now. Don’t you want to go along? I shouldn’t 
be surprised if Peter would like to go too. I shall ask 
him. It’s a fine day, and we should all enjoy the trip. I 
won’t ask Joe to go, because I don’t want him with us. 
He’d do all the talking and we should never get a chance 
to say a word. Doesn’t he talk though? I didn’t go with 
him the last time he asked me to go. Aren’t you ready 
yet? Come on; it’s getting late. 

Note. —Teach contractions, but discourage their use for 
a time. Especially, discourage the use of “can’t.” 
Observation shows that until beginners have learned 
to stress the final consonant, their utterances of can’t 
(with a weakened t) are apt to be mistaken for can. 
Urge them to use cannot in business. 

1. There is no book here. 

There isn’t any book here, (not, There isn’t no 
book here.) 

2. I put nothing into the box. 

I did not put anything into the box. 

I didn’t put anything into the box. (not, I didn’t 
put nothing into..) 



Some negative expressions 


145 


3. He will not say anything. 

He will say nothing. 

He won’t say anything, {not, He won’t say nothing.) 

4. Did yon not say anything to him? 

Didn’t you say anything to him? {not, Didn’t you 
say nothing to him?) 

5. You should not put salt into your tea. 

You shouldn’t put salt into your tea. {not, You 
shouldn’t put no salt into your tea.) 

6. He has not been here at any time. 

He hasn’t been here at any time, {not, He hasn’t 
been here at no time.) 

SOME NEGATIVE EXPRESSIONS 

{Never sometimes amounts merely to an emphatic 
negative.) 

1. He never moved when he saw the house afire. 

2. He never said a word. (He said nothing.) 

3. Never a person came. (No one came.) 

4. I never knew it. (I did not know it.) 

5. I never knew it rained. 

6. It’s never Jane. (It is not Jane.) 

1. Much I care what you do. (I do not care.) 

2. Much you can. do for me. (You cannot do any¬ 
thing for me.) 

3. Much he knows about it. (He knows nothing.) 

4. Much I’ll say to him. (I will say nothing.) 

5. Much I mean to you. (I mean nothing to.) 

6. Much you can do to stop it. (You cannot stop it.) 


146 


Some negative expressions 


1. Let me see you touch it. (You shall not touch it.) 

2. Let me hear you say one word. (Keep quiet. Do 
not speak.) 

3. Let him come here again. (He must not come.) 

Sometimes words or phrases are added to negatives for 
the sake of emphasis. 

1. I know nothing at all about him. 

2. I am not in the least surprised. 

3. They don’t care a cent about it. 

4. I will not give in an inch. 

5. I don’t care a rap about him. 

6. He is not a bit hungry. 

7. I will not say a single word about her. 

8. I will not go one step. 

9. He has nothing whatever to say. 

1. He is no longer a member. 

2. He has nothing more to say. 

3. There is nothing that we can do. (We can do nothing.) 

4. He works here no more. 

5. Not one of you can do.it. (None of you can do it.) 

6. He got no help from me. (did not get.) 

7. He needs no help, (does not need.) 

Negation through indirect or round-about means: 

1. Am I responsible for this? (I am not.) 



Sentences 


147 


2. Who knows what will happen if I go? (I do not.) 

3. Isn’t he lazy? (Negative question meaning the posi¬ 
tive assertion, ‘He is lazy.’) 

4. Was there ever a more pleasant day? (There never 

was.) 

5. Did you ever see such flowers? (I never saw.) 

6. Did you ever have a better time? (I never had.) 

7. What need has he for this? (He does not have any.,) 

8. Why should I go now? (I should not.) 

9. Catch me doing that again. (I will never.) 

10. If I had the money, I should travel. (I do not 

have.) 

11. I tried not to see them. (I did not want to.) 

12. I tried not to hear them. (I did not want to.-.) 

13. No one ever saw him idle. (He is never idle.) 

14. He said so, but not without some doubt. (He feels 
doubtful about it.) 

15. It is not uncommon to see such things here. (Is 
common.) 

16. I hardly know, (hardly, almost not.) 

17. All this is unnecessary. (Nothing is necessary.) 

18. Everybody was unkind to him. (No one was kind.) 

19. He forgets everything we tell him. (He remembers 
nothing.) 

20. They are not altogether happy, (somewhat unhappy.) 

21. Nobody is unkind. (Everybody is kind.) 










148 


Corrections of some common errors 


CORRECTIONS OF SOME COMMON ERRORS 


Correct : 
Incorrect: 

I think it is they. 

I think it is them. 

Correct: 
Incorrect: 

I did it twice. 

I done it twice. 

Correct: 
Incorrect: 

Joe began his work early. 

Joe begun his work early. 

Correct: 
Incorrect : 

Where is he? 

Where is he at? 

Correct: 
Incorrect : 

That isn’t true. 

That ain’t true. 

Correct: 
Incorrect : 

He is somewhere near. 

He is somewheres near. 

Correct: 
Incorrect : 

I could have gone with you. 

I could of gone with you. 

Correct: 
Incorrect : 

I didn’t see any dogs. 

I didn’t see no dogs. 

Correct: 
Incorrect : 

Everybody has his troubles. 

Everybody has their troubles. 

Correct: 
Incorrect: 

He doesn’t know his lesson. 

He don’t know his lesson. 

Correct: 
Incorrect : 

What kind of book have you? 

What kind of a book have you? 


Correct: I don’t want that kind of pencil. 

Incorrect: I don’t want that kind of a pencil. 


Sentences 


349 


Correct: 
Incorrect: 

She reads well. 

She reads good. 

Correct: 
Incorrect : 

He ate here last week. 

He eat here last week. 

Correct: 
Incorrect : 

We boys will do it. 

Us boys will do it. 

Correct: 
Incorrect : 

Lend me a dollar. 

Loan me a dollar. 

Correct : 
Incorrect : 

Has she come yet? 

Has she came yet? 

Correct : 
Incorrect: 

He has gone. 

He has went. 

Correct: 
Incorrect : 

Are John and Mary here? 

Is John and Mary here? 

Correct: 
Incorrect : 

Pens cost more than pencils. 

Pens costs more than pencils. 

Correct: 
Incorrect : 

Those flowers are pretty. 

Them flowers are pretty. 

Correct: 
Incorrect : 

I didn’t say anything about it. 

I didn’t say nothing about it. 

Correct : 
Incorrect : 

I have no time to spare now. 

I haven’t no time to spare now. 

Correct : 
Incorrect : 

I could hardly understand him. 

I couldn’t hardly understand him. 

Correct: 
Incorrect : 

I feel as if I had caught cold. 

I feel like I caught cold. 

Correct: 
Incorrect: 

I don’t know that I can wait. 

I don’t know as I can wait. 


150 

Corrections of some common errors 

Correct : 
Incorrect : 

That kind of hat is good for cold weather. 
Those kind of hats are good for cold weather. 

Correct : 
Incorrect: 

To whom did yon write? 

Who did you write to? 

Correct: 
Incorrect * 

It’s he. 

It’s him. 

Correct : 
Incorrect : 

Why do the girls and boys play there? 

Why does the girls and the boys play there? 

Correct: 
Incorrect : 

Were your brother’s children at school? 

Was your brother’s children at school? 

Correct : 
Incorrect: 

Let Mary and me have books. 

Let Mary and I have books. 

Correct : 
Incorrect : 

He and I went. 

Him and me went. 

Correct : 
Incorrect : 

Give me those pens. 

Give me them pens. 

Correct: 
Incorrect : 

I did it. 

I done it. 

Correct : 
Incorrect : 

Where were you? 

Where was you? 

Correct : 
Incorrect : 

I saw him. 

I seen him. 

Correct : 
Incorrect: 

He has come often. 1 

He has came often. 

Correct: 
Incorrect : 

He sat here. 

He set here. 

Correct: 
Incorrect • 

He and I did it. 

Him and me did it. 

Correct : 
Incorrect : 

They were here to-day. 

They was here to-day. 


Sentences 


151 


Correct: 
Incorrect: 

Each side of the room has windows. 
Either side of the room has windows. 

Correct: 
Incorrect: 

It fell off the table. 

It fell off of the table. 

Correct : 
Incorrect : 

I intended to see you. 

I intended to have seen you. 

Correct : 

Incorrect: 

$ 

Pardon my speaking so roughly. 
Pardon me speaking so roughly. 

Corrcst : 
Incorrect : 

I saw John and her. 

I saw John and she. 

Correct: 
Incorrect : 

He works for Smith regularly. 

He works for Smith right along. 

Correct : 
Incorrect : 

I suspect he has gone. 

I expect he has gone. 

Correct: 
Incorrect : 

He looks rather angry. 

He looks kind of angry. 

Correct : 
Incorrect : 

I couldn’t find it anywhere. 

I couldn’t find it nowhere. 

Correct: 
Incorrect: 

Try to come soon. 

Try and come soon. 

Correct : 
Incorrect : 

You were there too. 

You was there too. 

Correct: 
Incorrect : 

We wanted her to go. 

We wanted that she go. 

Correct : 
Incorrect: 

They are a long way off. 

They are a long ways off. 


152 


The subjunctive mood 


THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 

Conjugation of the verb be in the indicative and 
subjunctive moods: 



Present Tense 


Indicative 

Subjunctive 

I am. 

(if) 

I be. 

You are. 

df) 

you be. 

He is. 

(if) 

he be. 

We are. 

df) 

we be. 

You are. 

(if) 

you be. 

They are. 

df) 

they be. 


Past Tense 


I was. 

(If) 

I were. 

You were. 

• (If) 

you were. 

He was. 

(If) 

he were. 

We were. 

(If) 

we were. 

You were. 

(If) 

you were. 

They were. 

(If) 

they were. 


The third person singlar of the present perfect 
subjunctive is have been (he have been.) The other forms 
of the present perfect and all the forms of the past 
perfect are the same as the forms of the indicative (See 
page 124.) 

Writing in The Making of English (Macmillan, 
1904) the late Henry Bradley, for many years one of the 
editors of the Oxford English Dictionary, speaking of 
the disappearance of the English subjunctive, thus de¬ 
scribed its present status: 


Sentences 


153 


“In Old English the subjunctive played as important 
a part as in modern German, and was used in much the 
same way. Its inflexion differed in several respects from 
that of the indicative. The only formal trace of the old 
subjunctive still remaining, except the use of be and 
ivere, is the omission of the final s in the third person 
singular of verbs. And even this is rapidly dropping out 
of use, its only remaining function being to emphasise 
the uncertainty of a supposition. Perhaps in another 
generation the subjunctive forms will have ceased to exist 
except in the single instance of were, which serves a use¬ 
ful function, although we manage to dispense with a 
corresponding form in other verbs. ” 

The following are the common uses of the subjunctive: 

I. To express a wish: 

1. I wish I were able to use the English language 
with precision. 

2. I wish you were able . . . 

3. I wish he were able . . . 

4. I wish I were going to the concert with you 
to-night. 

5. I wish that I were not here just now. 

II. To express a condition contrary to fact in present time; 

1. If I were you, I should go to school every day. 

2. If you were I, you would not go. 

3. If I were he, I should go at once. 

4. If you were I, should you go, or should you 
stay here? 

5. If I were not a student here, I should not know 
these people who sit here beside me. 


154 


The use of modal auxiliaries 


THE USE OF MODAL AUXILIARIES 


Conjugation of the Verbs 
can, may, must, ought, shall, and will 
Present Indicative 


I can. 

may 

must 

ought 

shall 

will 

You can. 

may 

must 

ought 

shall 

will 

He can. 

may 

must 

ought 

shall 

will 

We can. 

may 

must 

ought 

shall 

will 

You can. 

may 

must 

ought 

shall 

will 

They can. 

may 

must 

ought 

shall 

will 


Past Indicative 



I could. 

might 

must 

ought 

should 

would 

You could. 

might 

must 

ought 

should 

would 

He could. 

might 

must 

ought 

should 

would 

We could. 

might 

must 

ought 

should 

would 

You could. 

might 

must 

ought 

should 

would 

They could. 

might 

must 

ought 

should 

would 


After may, can, must, might, could, would, and 
should the infinitive is used without to. 

Can and should indicate that the subject is able to 
do something. 

1. I can speak English now, but I could not when 
I first came to this country. 

2. I can work a few hours each day and come to 
school also. 

3. I could not go to school last year, because I was 
working. 

4. Can he speak English? 

5. Could he speak English last year? 


Sentences 


155 


May and might indicate permission, possibility or 
doubtful intention, or a wish. 

Permission: 

Will you let me have your pen? 

May I have your pen? 

1. You may have it. 

2. I told you yesterday that you might have it. 

Possibility or doubtful intention: 

1. I may come to-morrow, I am not sure now. 

2. He might not come at six o’clock, but he will be 
here before eight. 

3. It may rain before night. 

4. It might be well to take an umbrella with you. 

Must expresses necessity or obligation: 

1. We must have food. 

2. I must go now, or I shall miss my train. 

3. Peter must have taken my pencil, I do not see 
it on the table. 

4. John must have gone home early to-day. 

5. We must do this work to-day, for we may not 
have time to-morrow. 

6. I must get dressed for work. 

7. We must not forget our umbrellas. 

8. You must not work there any longer. 

9. Must I spend so much for a pair of shoes? 

10. Must this lesson be written in ink? 


156 


The use of modal auxiliaries 


Ought and should express duty or moral Obligation: 

1. I ought to (or should ) write to him to-day. 

2. You should not make so many mistakes in 
speaking. 

3. You ought to visit your uncle. 

4. You ought to have visited your uncle last week. 

5. You ought to buy yourself a hat. 

6. You should have bought your hat last week. 

7. Mary should have bought a hat too. 

8. Mary’s hat ought to have been bought yesterday. 

9. Ought I to go to school the whole year? 

10. Should I go shopping with you? 

Should and ought sometimes express what would be 
expected: 

1. Three weeks should be long enough to finish. 

2. Three weeks ought to be long enough to finish. 

3. He should be here in an hour. 

4. He ought to go that distance in twenty minutes. 

5. Should I get there in one hour? 

Would is sometimes used in expressions of habitual 
action: 

1. In school I would often forget and put two r’s 
in this word. 

2. She ivoidd always talk when I wanted to read. 

3. He would want to go out when I wanted to 
come in. 

4. I would want to look at the keys when I wrote 
on the typewriter, but my teacher had forbidden 
me to look. 

5. Would he always talk when you were reading? 


Some uses of the verb get 


157 


SOME USES OF THE VERB GET 

1. He gets twenty or thirty dollars a week from his 
sales. 

2. John gets so little from selling fish that he is going 
to do something else. 

3. Little Jane got the prize in school for being the best 
writer. 

4. Wait a minute until I get my umbrella. 

5. The policeman got the thief after a long chase. 

6. I usually get my breakfast early, when do you get 
yours ? 

7. When I touched the electric wire I got a shock. 

8. He gets a cold every time he goes out in the rain. 

9. I am going out among the neighbors to get the news. 

10. Mary got an average of eighty in school last month. 

11. What have you got to say about this? 

12. He says that this has got to be done at once. 

13. You have got to do it whether you want to or not. 

14. He gets very tired when he works all day. 

15. I must get ready for the party. 

16. We want to get him elected president. 

17. I have worked hard to get this work done to-day. 

18. If I could get this box open, I should show you what 
is in it. 

19. He got his arm broken when he fell on the ice. 

20. When I get to New York I shall buy a coat. 

21. When I get home tonight I shall take a good rest. 


158 


Some uses of the verb get 


22. Let us try hard to get him away from here. We do 
not want him here. 

23. I wish I could get a message to my sister to-day. 

24. Get him to come here if you can. 

25. If I can get any work to do, I shall stay. 

26. He was confined to bed last week, but he is able to 
get about now. 

27. How are you getting along now, Frank? 

28. The thief got away from the policeman. 

29. I lent him some money a year ago, but I got it all 
back this year. 

30. I want to get this lesson by heart. 

31. When they dug down several hundred feet into the 
earth, they got petroleum. 

32. This work is new to me. When I get my hand in 
I shall do it quickly. 

33. He got into office at the last election. 

34. How did you get it into your head that I was a 
Greek ? 

35. I told them that I would go; now I want to get off 
from going. 

36. He got off without having to pay a fine. 

37. He is getting on well in school. 

38. When will the printer get out the publication. 

39. Let us get together and talk matters over. 

40. He has got out of the habit of speaking fast; he 
speaks slowly now. 


Sentences 


159 


41. I told them I would go, but I will get out of it 
if I can. 

42. I am determined to get over this difficulty in pro¬ 
nunciation. 

43. He got over his cold in a short time. 

44. I cannot get over John’s coming here. (I am greatly 
surprised.) 

45. Let us get rid of these extra books. We don’t need 
them. 

46. He asked me how much I made a day. I got around 
the question and didn’t tell him. 

47. John and I went to the meeting. John got the best 
of it, and I got the worst of it. He was admitted, 
and I was refused admittance. 

48. I want to get through with my examinations this week. 

49. I didn’t get to see him at all. 

50. If I can get enough money together, I shall buy a 
coat. 

51. After fighting the fire a long time, they got it under 
control. 

52. Let us get up a party. 

53. I cannot get up the energy to learn this lesson. 

54. He gets angry quite easily. 

55. If I can get my way, I shall go this month. 

56. I don’t like the get-up of your letter. It is composed 
too carelessly. 

57. They were getting up from the dinner table when 
I came. 

58. I got up unusually early this morning. 


160 


Infinitives 


INFINITIVES 

1. The Infinitives of the verb be: 

Present, to be 
Perfect, to have been 

2. The Infinitives of the verb write: 

Active Voice Passive Voice 

Present, to write to be written 

Perfect, to have written to have been written 

In some of the uses of the infinitive the to, which 
is called its sign, is omitted. The infinitive is often used 
as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. It is in some re¬ 
spects like a verb; its meaning may be completed by modi¬ 
fiers and complements, and it may sometimes take a subject. 

The infinitive may follow each of the twenty-three 
verb-forms that are used in making interrogative and 
negative sentences. (See page 143.) 

To, the sign of the infinitive, is used with the infini¬ 
tive after ought, am, is, ivas, were, are, have, has, and had. 

1. I ought to write to my brother to-day. 

2. I ought to have written to him last week. 

3. You ought not to go to-day. 

4. You ought not to have gone yesterday. 

5. I am to get some idea of the use of infinitives from 
these sentences. 

6. I am to be given a new book to-morrow. 

7. This lesson is to be studied carefully by all. 

8. John was to have been here last week. 

9. He and his brother were to go last week. 


Sentences 


161 


10. They were to come on Friday. 

11. Fred and Mary also are to be invited. 

12. We have to report for work at eight in the morning. 

13. He has to be enrolled in this class. 

14. They had to leave the school early to-day, because 
they are to be at the railroad station at three. 

15. We had to get help with our lesson. 

16. We had to be helped with our lesson. 

17. This lesson was to have been written yesterday. 

The to is omitted when the infinitive is used after 
do, does, did, shall, should, will, would, can, could, may, 
might, must, need, and dare. 

1. They do make good bread at the bakery. 

2. Alice does play the piano well. 

3. They were not here at six, but they did come at eight. 

4. I shall do what I am asked to do. 

5. Edith should go home soon. 

6. Edith’s lesson should be written now. 

7. He will take care to write well. 

8. The letter will be written well. 

9. He would get another pen, if he needed it. 

10. It would be done well, if he did it. 

11. He would listen to you, if you were to advise him. 

12. Good fruit can also be bought at the market. 

13. We could not get good fruit anywhere last winter. 

14. I may go to-day, or I might not go until next Friday. 


162 


Infinitives 


15. Yon must not touch the electric wires. 

16. I must not permit myself to be careless in speech. 

17. We need not take our umbrellas to-day. 

18. Tickets are not needed; the lecture is free. 

19. I dare not enter the door where you see, ‘No Admit¬ 
tance’. 

In the following sentences note how the infinitives 
are used; note also the kinds of words they depend on. 

1. To speak English is my desire. 

2. To speak English well is my desire. 

3. To speak English well on all occasions is my desire. 

4. To learn is gratifying. 

5. To see is to believe. 

6. To speak carefully at all times is not easy. 

7. It is pleasant to be able to sing good music. 

8. It is easy to learn the uses of infinitives. 

9. It is impossible to understand him; he talks too fast. 

10. It is advisable to call a meeting soon. 

11. It is my wish to please every one here. 

12. It is of no use to tell him anything. 

13. It is time for us to go home. 

14. It is not possible for me to talk with him now. 

15. For me to go now is impossible. 

16. For this train to be late is unusual. 

17. We were wishing for you to come. 

18. We are waiting for them to take us home. 


Sentences 


163 


19. We were looking for you to come at noon. 

20. They are thought to be good singers. 

21. They are about to come to our city. 

22. They are said to be the best in the country. 

23. They are supposed to have been trained in Europe. 

24. He is believed to be an honest man. 

25. We expect him to be a good teacher. 

26. He was. compelled to quit his business. 

27. They were forced to leave the city. 

28. They had to go. 

29. They were commanded to do it. 

30. I am able to learn this lesson. 

31. We are glad to see you. 

32. I am willing to go with you. 

33. I am unwilling to pay so much for a hat, 

34. I am ready to go home. 

35. Is it necessary to spend so much time here? 

36. I am not inclined to go for a walk now. 

37. Be careful not to make mistakes. 

38. Take care not to forget anything. 

39. I intend to learn this lesson well. 

40. He is determined to master the English language. 

41. He made up his mind to learn it. 

42. He forgot to sign his name. 

43. I want to find out all about it. 


164 


Participles 


44. I should like to have met Mr. Johnson yesterday. 

45. I should like to meet his wife. 

46. I had the opportunity to come to America. 

47. He has a desire to travel. 

48. Now I have a chance to come to school. 

49. We want you to be here early. 

50. Let some one help you. 

51. We expect them all to come. 

52. My friends wanted me to study here. 

53. I should like you to make daily reports of the sales. 

54. We were wishing him to come now. 

55. I wish him to go now. 

56. He has been told how to do it. 

.57. They have been shown what to do. 

58. We directed them where to go. 

59. He is not permitted to come here. 

60. He has been told not to do it. 

61. I know the writer of this to be Mary. 


PARTICIPLES 


1. Of the verb be: 

Present, being; past, been; perfect, having been. 

2. Of the verb write: 


Active Voice 
Present, writing 
Past, written 
Perfect, having written 


being written 
have been written 
having been written 


Passive Voice 


Sentences 


165 


A participle is a word that partakes of the nature 
of a verb and an adjective. In the sentence it fills the 
office of an adjective, and may be modified by an adverb; 
it may also take after it some of the constructions which 
the verb from which it is formed takes. 

1. That smiling child is very happy. 

2. The leaking ship went to the bottom of the sea. 

3. The boy standing is James. 

4. That broken machine is of no use. 

5. I have a worn book. 

6. He had a satisfied look. 

7. The girl sitting at the table is Jane. 

8. The person talking is our teacher; those listening are 
her students. 

9. We heard the wind blowing in the night. 

10. I saw her talking to Kate. 

11. We heard her playing the piano. 

12. I saw a bird injured by a cat. 

13. I saw them waiting for their car. 

14. We see them coming up the street. 

15. I heard her singing in the school. 

16. Having no paper, I cannot write. 

17. Having no time, I shall not go. 

18. Thinking the matter over carefully, I have decided 
not to go. 

19. Smiling pleasantly, she corrected my mistakes. 

20. Her work being finished, she was ready to go home. 

21. Having been well prepared, he made a good recitation. 

22. Having done all that I was asked to do, I shall go 
home. 


166 


Gerund 


GERUND OR VERBAL NOUN 

1. Walking is good exercise. 

2. Farming is the occupation of many persons. 

3. Skating is a winter sport. 

4. Speaking English is difficult for me. 

5. Cooking meats is his business. 

6. Telling stories well is a gift. 

7. They are afraid of failing in business. 

8. They talk of going soon. 

9. They are fond of singing softly. 

10. Speaking quickly is a fault. 

11. Buying hastily is a risk. 

12. We want pure drinking water, (water for drinking, 
not water that drinks) 

13. His working hours are long (hours for work, not 
hours that work) 

14. We use drinking cups, (cups for drinking, not cups 
that drink) 

15. Building a house is expensive. 

16. The building of a house is expensive. 

17. Learning English requires time. 

18. The learning of English requires time. 

19. Getting pass-ports was difficult. 

20. The getting of pass-ports was difficult. 

21. I was sure of Smith’s being elected. 

22. We were happy to hear of Fred’s winning the race. 


Sentences 


167 


23. I am sure of its being Mary who just now came in. 


24. I told you of our visiting Alice. 


25. I am accustomed to talking fast. 

26. You will be rewarded for having studied so hard. 

27. He is well paid for doing it. 

28. They agreed to selling the house. 

29. That is far from being perfect. 

30. I am against voting for him. 

31. We are opposed to letting him have it. 

32. We were informed by writing. 

33. He was injured by falling. 

34. He was excited over John’s coming. 


35. They insist on our coming. 

Gerund 

Walking is good exercise. 

Correct speaking is diffi¬ 
cult. 

Making shoes is his busi¬ 
ness. 

Seeing is believing. 

Participial Construction 

The girl sitting there is 
Kate. 

The book lying on the table 
is his. 

The man coming in now is 
Mr. Smith. 

The books being put into 
the cupboard now are 
histories. 

The boy sitting there is my 
brother. 


Infinitive as Noun 

To walk is good exercise. 

To speak correctly is diffi¬ 
cult. 

To make shoes is his busi¬ 
ness. 

To see is to believe. 

Relative Construction 

The girl who sits there is 
Kate. 

The book that lies on the 
table is his. 

The man who comes in now 
is Mr. Smith. 

The books that are being 
put into the cupboard 
now are histories. 

The boy who sits there is 
my brother. 


168 


The elements of a sentence 


THE ELEMENTS OF A SENTENCE 

KINDS OF SENTENCES 

I. Statements: 

1. This is a little book. 

2. The man who just now came in is a student. 

3. He does not have a book. 

II. Interrogative sentences: 

1. Who is that man? 

2. Is this your book? 

III. Commands: 

1. Put the pen on his desk. 

2. Sit here to write. 

IV. Exclamatory sentences: 

1. What a fine day it is! 

2. There they are! 

SIMPLE SUBJECTS 

1. This boy studies here. 

Who studies here? Boy. 

2. Those books on the table are mine. 

What are yours? Books. 

3. They are talking now. 

Who are talking? They. 

4. Those are not your papers. 

What papers are not yours? Those. 

5. They are John’s,boxes. 

What are John’s boxes? They. 


Simple predicates 


169 


6. To know English is necessary. 

What is necessary? To know English. 

7. Which lesson to write is the question. 

What is the question? Which lesson to write. 

8. John, Mary, and Nancy study. 

Who study? John, Mary, and Nancy. 

9. Blue is my favorite color. 

What is your favorite color? Blue. 

10. To read ivell and to speak fluently are things that 
I desire. 

What are things that I desire? To read well and to 
speak fluently. 

11. Who put the book here? 

Joe put the book here. (Who) is subject of the 
question, because it takes the place of Joe, which is 
found by the answer to be the word that who repre¬ 
sents. 

12. Bring me a chair, please, (subject, you.) 

SIMPLE PREDICATES 

1. John writes. 

What does John do? writes. 

2. Mary reads and writes. 

What does Mary do? reads and writes. 

3. The lesson was written. 

What was done to the lesson? was written. 

4. My pen has been taken. 

What has been done to my pen? ha$ been taken. 

5. She will go home soon. 

What will she do? will go. 


170 


The elements of a sentence 


6. He is good at writing. 

He is what? is good at writing. 

7. They read books here. 

What do they do? read books. 

8. He asked me my name. 

What did he do? asked me (my) name. 

9. Miss Miller taught me the English language. 

What did Miss Miller do? taught me language. 

10. They named their son Ralph. 

What did they do? named (their) son Ralph. 

11. George Washington was elected president of the 
United States. 

What was done to George Washington? was elected 
president. 

12. I looked at the book that lies on the table. 

What did yon do? looked at the book. 

13. They gave me three bottles of ink. 

What did they do? gave me bottles. 

14. I expected to go soon. 

What did yon do? expected to go. 

15. I understand that you are going away. 

What do you do?. understand that you are going 
away. 


It will be observed by examining these sentences that 
the simple predicate includes the verb and whatever else, 
if anything, is required to make sense of the kind ex¬ 
pressed by the whole sentence. 


Full subject. Full predicate 


171 


FULL SUBJECT 

1. The little boy studies. 

2. That man at the end of the table studies here. 

3. Those girls who sit and talk are members of our class. 

4. The book that John put into the box is Mr. Smith’s. 

5. What I shall write on this paper is the question. 

6. To speak distinctly is difficult for me. 

7. This pen, that pencil, and that eraser belong to me. 

8. John, Mary, Kate, and Sam are students here. 

9. It is necessary to know the English language well. (It 
stands before the verb and represents the real sub¬ 
ject, to know . . . ) 

10. It is enjoyable to travel in a strange country. 

11. To speak fluently, to write well, and to read in¬ 
telligently are the things I want to accomplish in 
this school. 

12. The question, how I can learn this language in a 
short time, has not yet been solved. 

13. Who put those hats on that table? 

14. (You) Put those papers on the desk, please. 

FULL PREDICATE 

1. John studies. 

2. Mary writes her lesson. 

3. Mary writes her lesson on paper. 

4. Harry sits beside this table when he comes to school. 

5. Frank comes here to learn. 


172 


The elements of a sentence 


6. He always puts the books into the drawer at the 
end of the table. 

7. When Sam has time, he goes to the theater. 

8. They gave me the little pens that were in the box. 

9. Nancy reads well, writes well , and speaks distinctly. 

10. I studied hours. 

11. Hattie is president of this class. 

12. Marie thinks that she shall come here for several 
months. 

USES OF NOUNS AND NOUN-EQUIVALENTS 

I. Subject of a Sentence: 

1. James writes. 

2. He writes, (pronoun, noun-equivalent) 

3. To run is good exercise, (infinitive, noun-equiva¬ 
lent) 

4. Running is good exercise, (gerund, noun-equiva¬ 
lent) 

5. What I have is yours, (clause, noun-equivalent) 

II. Direct Object of the Verb: 

1. James writes letters. 

2. I saw him. 

3. We told him to come. 

4. He said that he would come. 

5. He likes rowing. 

6. I know he did it. 


Uses of nouns and noun-equivalents 


173 


III. Object of a Preposition: 

1. He comes to school. 

2. I talked to her. 

3. I got the books for him to read. 

4. Here is a pen for whoever wants it. 

5. Here is paper for writing. 

IV. Predicate Nominative: 

1. He is president. 

2. It is I. 

3. To run is to exercise. 

4. Studying is thinking. 

5. This is what I want. 

V. Nominative in Apposition: 

1. Smith, the president, made a speech. 

VI. Vocative: 

1. Charles, come here. 

2. Get those pens, Mary. 

VII. Possessive Modifier: 

1. I have John’s book. 

2. Mary’s and John’s hats are on the rack. 

VIII. Predicate Objective: 

1. They elected John president. 

2. They made Jane captain. 

IX. Indirect Object: 

1. Jane gave Helen a pen. 

2. Jane gave that girl at the table a pen. 


174 


The elements of a sentence 


X. Cognate Object: 

1. He laughed a loud laugh. 

2. He sighed a deep sigh. 

XI. Adverbial Objective: 

1. I studied hours. 

2. I recite my lesson many times a day. 

XII. Subject of the Infinitive: 

1. I wanted her to go. 

2. I saw John go. 

3. They invited you and me to go to the theater. 

XIII. Object of the Infinitive: 

1. I told her to get a book. 

2. I asked her to take it. 

• 3. I told her to do whatever she wished to do. 

XIV. Object of a Gerund (Verbal-Noun) : 

1. Reading books is profitable. 

2. I enjoy reading books. 

XV. Object of a Participle: 

1. Having crossed the Atlantic, I can tell you some¬ 
thing about this ocean. 

2. Seeing my sister come, I opened the door. 

MEANINGS OF CASES OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS 
I. Nominative case: 

1. The book is here, (subject of verb). 

She is here, (subject of verb). 

2. The book is a reader, (predicate nominative). 
It is I. (predicate nominative). 


Meanings of cases of nouns and pronouns 


175 


3. My sister, Mary, is here. (appositive with 
nominative). 

4. Charles, come here, (vocative). 

5. The sun! the sun! It will he a fine day to¬ 
morrow. (in exclamation). 

II. Possessive case: 

1. John’s book is here, (possessive noun). 

2. Her book is here, (possessive pronoun). 

3. The pencil has lost its eraser, (possessive pro¬ 
noun, qualifying noun eraser). 

III. Objective case: 

1. Alexander wrote a letter, (object of verb). 

2. I saw him. (object of verb). 

3. He went to school, (object of proposition to). 

4. I gave it to hint, (object of preposition to). 

5. I want Anna to come, (subject of infinitive to 
come). 

6. I told her to come, (subject of infinitive to 
come). 

7. He asked me my name. 

(me, direct object denoting the person.; 
name, direct object denoting the thing). 

8. I call John my friend, (predicate objective). 

9. He sold me a hat. 

(me, indirect object ; 
hat, direct object.) 

10. They waited years, (adverbial objective). 

11. I saw Peter, the milkman, (objective in ap¬ 
position). 

12. I told him to take her there, (object of in¬ 
finitive). 


176 


The elements of a sentence 


NOUN CLAUSES 

I. As Subject of the Sentence: 

1. That they were here is known. 

2. What you say is true. 

3. How far to go is the question. 

4. Where they are is not known. 

5. It is said that they sold their house. 

A subject sometimes comes after the verb and is 
represented by it standing before the verb in the usual 
place of the subject of the sentence. 

1. It is known that they are here. 

2. He is what he claims to he. 

II. As Predicate Nominative: 

1. This is what you wanted. 

2. He is what he was said to he. 

3. My intention is that you shall have it. 

III. As Appositive: 

1. The fact that he is here is known. 

2. The statement that she did it is not true. 

IV. As Adverbial Objective: 

1. I am glad that you have come so early. 

2. We are sorry that no one came. 

V. As Object of a Preposition: 

1. I know nothing except that they are here. 

2. John says nothing but that he will not go. 

3. I waited an hour for him to come. 

4. It is unusual for this train to he late. 


Noun clauses 


177 


VI. As Direct Object of a Verb: 

A. Introduced by an interrogative pronoun: 

1. I know who he is. 

2. I know which is his. 

3. I know what they said. 

4. I know who he is and what he said. 

B. Introduced by an interrogative adverb: 

1. I know where his is. 

2. I know when he came. 

3. I know how he writes. 

4. I know why I should go. 

5. I know how he came and why he came. 

C. Introduced bv a subordinating conjunction: 

1. I do not know that I shall go. 

2. I do not know whether I shall go. 

3. I do not know whether or not I shall go. 

4. I do not know whether I shall go or not. 

D. Infinitive clause used as direct object: 

1. I know him to be a friend. 

2. John wants William to come at once. 

Noun clauses are often used after verbs of com¬ 
manding, ordering, desinng, etc. 

1. The officer commanded that they leave 
at once. 

2. The officer commanded them to leave at 
once. 

3. John ordered that the men go to work. 


178 


The elements of a sentence 


4. John ordered the men to go to work. 

5. I wish that I had time to go. 

6. My friend advised that I come here. 

7. My friend advised me to come here. 

Noun clauses are used after the verbs let and make 
without to. 

1. Let them come in. (Allow them to come in.) 

2. They made me go. (They compelled me 
to go.) 

NOUNS AND NOUN-EQUIVALENTS FOLLOWING VERBS 

I. Predicate Nominative (complement of the verb) : 

1. George Washington was president. 

2. This book is a history. 

3. My idea is to go to school. 

4. His idea is that he shall not go. 

5. It is I. 

II. Predicate Adjective (complement of the verb) : 

1. This book is small. 

2. Harry is interested. 

3. This lesson is interesting. 

III. Direct Object (complement of the verb) : 

1. The boy hit the dog. 

2. He saw me. 

3. The cold injured the trees. 

4. I helped him. 

5. They invited yon and me. 

6. I like to study. 

7. I know that he unit come. 


Nouns and noun-equivalents following verbs 179 


When the verb is changed to the passive form, the 
direct object becomes the subject of the sentence, and 
the subject becomes the object of the preposition by. 

1. The dog was hit by the boy. 

2. I was seen by him. 

3. The trees were injured by the cold. 

4. He was helped by me. 

5. You and I were invited by them. 

The verb ask takes two direct objects, one of the 
person and the other of the thing. This important verb 
is the only verb in modern English which may take two 
direct objects. 

1. He asked me my name. 

IV. Objective Complement: 

Verbs of calling, choosing, naming, making, thinking, 
and the like may take two objects referring to the same 
person or thing. The first is the direct object, and the 
second is the predicate objective. 

1. They named the city Washington. 

2. They chose Miss Miller teacher. 

3. We thought him a friend. 

4. Peter calls Frank lazy. 

5. The people elected George Washington president. 

V. Indirect Object (adverbial modifier) : 

Some verbs take two objects, a direct object and an 
indirect object. 

1. I sold John a pen. (I sold a pen to John.) 

2. Harry handed us pencils. 

3. She gave me two books. 

4. He sold them tickets. 


180 


The elements of a sentence 


The following verbs may take an indirect object: 

allot, allow, assign, bequeath, bring, deny, ensure, fling, 
forbid, forgive, guarantee, hand, lease, lend, let, owe, 
pardon, pass, pay, refund, refuse, remit, restore, sell, 
send, show, sing, spare, teach, tell, throw, toss. 

Objective of Service (adverbial modifier) : 

1. Mary made Hattie a dress. (Mary made a 
dress for Hattie.) 

2. He got me a book. (He got a book for me.) 

3. I ordered her a pair of shoes. (I ordered a 
pair of shoes for her.) 

Hattie, me and her are objectives of service. 

It is always possible to make an adverbial phrase 
by inserting to before the indirect object, or for before 
the objective of service. 

VI. Adverbial Objective: 

1. We waited hours for them. 

2. Europe is miles from here. 

3. This table is six feet long. 

4. I visited my friend a short time. 

VII. Cognate Objects: 

A cognate object repeats the idea of the verb in noun 
form. 

1. I shall drink a cool drink of water. 

2. He sang a song. 

3. She lived a life of usefulness. 

4. The child dreamed a frightful dream. 

5. He promised a solemn promise. 


Adjectives and adjective-equivalents 


181 


6. James laughed a merry laugh. 

7. She sleeps a sound sleep. 

8. I shall light the light at seven. 

9. I breathed a long breath of fresh air. 

10. He called a loud call. 

11. She gave a beautiful gift. 

12. He shot a straight shot. 

13. They fight a hard fight. 

14. I cut a deep cut in my hand. 

15. He died a noble death. 

16. It rained a heavy rain. 

17. It snowed a light snow last night. 

18. He ordered a big order of goods. 

19. I shall drive a long drive into the country. 

ADJECTIVES AND ADJECTIVE-EQUIVALENTS 

Words, Phrases, and Clauses are Used to qualify 
nouns. 

I. Words: 

1. The girl writes, (definite article) 

2. The little girl writes, (descriptive adjective) 

3. One girl talks, (numeral adjective) 

4. That girl talks, (definitive adjective) 

5. The girl laughing is Mary, (participial adjective) 

6. The educated girl is Jane, (past participle used 
as an adjective) 


182 


The elements of a sentence 


II. Phrases: 

1. The girl at the table writes, (prepositional phrase) 

2. The girl sitting at the table writes, (participial 
phrase) 

3. Do you know all the words in this book? (pre¬ 
positional phrase) 

III. Clauses: 

A. Introduced by relative pronouns: 

1. The girl who sits there is Kate. 

2. The girl whom you met is Kate. 

3. The girl whose pen you have is Mary. 

4. The book which I have is a history. 

5. Here is a pencil that is broken. 

6. The man beside whom I sit is my brother. 

7. I never before saw such flowers as these are. (as, 
with such in the main clause) 

Note. —The simple relative pronouns are who, which, 
that, as, and what. That, as, and what are not in¬ 
flected. Who and which are declined as follows: 

Singular and Plural Singular and Plural 

Nominative who which 

Possessive whose whose 

Objective whom which 

Defining or restrictive clauses: 

1. The man who is sitting there is a Greek. 

2. The books that lie on the tabie are mine, but 
those which lie on the chair are yours. 

3. The book that I bought to-day is better than the 
one that I bought last week. 


Adverbs and adverb-equivalents 


183 


4. This is the same teacher that taught me last 
month. 

Non-defining or non-restrictive clauses: 

1. John, who has been absent for a week, is here 
again to-day. 

2. This book, which I have just bought, is quite in¬ 
teresting. 

3. My dog, which my uncle gave me, is a collie. 

B. Introduced by relative adverbs: 

(a) Denoting time: 

1. The day when 1 came was cold. 

2. The day before you went away was rainy. 

3. The day after you went was clear. 

4. The time since you have come seems short. 

5. The days until you came were long. 

(b) Denoting place: 

1. The street where I live is narrow. 

2. The French once occupied the place where 
Pittsburgh now stands, and the Dutch once oc¬ 
cupied the place where New York now stands. 

ADVERBS AND ADVERB-EQUIVALENTS 

I. Words: 

1. They live here.... (modifying the verb) 

2. The hat is too small, (modifying the adjective 
small) 

3. He works very hard, (modifying the adverb 
hard) 

4. Certainly, I will do it. (modifying sentence, ‘1 
will do it.’) 


184 


The elements of a sentence 


5. To speak well requires practice, (modifying in¬ 
finitive to speak) 

6. Laughing heartily, she went on. (modifying par¬ 
ticiple laughing) 

7. I waited hours for him. (adverbial objective) 

8. Henry gave me a pen. (indirect object) 

9. Henry made Frank a box. (object of service) 

10. She sang a song, (cognate object) 

11. I went there once, (numeral adverb) 

II. Phrases: 

1. They went to a store, (prepositional phrase modi¬ 
fying the verb went) 

2. The book was interesting to the end. (modifying 
the adjective interesting) 

3. He went there to ivork. (infinitive modifying verb 
went) 

4. We stayed a long time, (adverbial objective) 

5. These lessons are hard at times, (modifying the 
adjective hard) 

6. At least six boys came, (modifying the adjective 
six) 

7. The child ran, crying with all his might, (pre¬ 
positional phrase modifying the participle crying) 

8. I went there four times, (numeral phrase modi¬ 
fying the verb went) 

III. Clauses: 

A. Clauses of time (answering the questions When? 
At what time? During what time?) These are in¬ 
troduced by the relative adverbs when, whenever, 
while, before, after, since, till (until, preferred 


Adverbs and adverb-equivalents 


185 


when its clause or phrase stands first), the minute, 
the day, as (with as soon, as long, so long in the 
principal clause), now (that), once that. 

1. I shall see Frank when I go to New York. 

2. John was there before Harry came. 

3. After I finish this thing, I will give it to you. 

4. It has been a long time since I saw you. 

5. During the time Mary visited us, we went to the 
park three times. 

6. While I was sitting here, the other members of 
the family were sleeping. 

7. Until I talk with him, I cannot give you an 
answer. 

8. I shall wait here till the train comes in. 

9. You mat use my dictionary whenever you wish. 

10. The minute I heard his voice, I knew him. 

11. I was there the day he came. 

12. We shall go as soon as we can. 

13. Now that you are here, you may go to work. 

14. Once that I understand how to run this machine, 
I shall be able to make it work. 

B. Clauses of Place (answering the questions Where? 
At what place? How far? These are introduced by 
the relative adverbs where, wherever, whence. 

1. I want to stand where I can see the parade. 

2. They live beyond where you see the tall building. 

3. They may go wherever they wish. 

C. Clauses of Concession (answering the question In 
spite of what? These are introduced by the re¬ 
lative adverbs though, although, even if, even though. 

1. Though I have been in America three years, I 
cannot speak English so very well. 


186 


The elements of a sentence 


2. Even though I have the money, I will not bny 
a new house now. 

3. Though I do not speak well, still I am not dis¬ 
couraged. 

4. I do not understand; nevertheless I shall continue 
to study. 

5. Slow as I am., I shall finish this paper to-day. (as, 
conjunction). 

6. Whatever you do, you cannot prevent his going. 
(whatever, relative pronoun). 

7. Even if I had time, I would not go. 

D. Clauses of Purpose (answering the questions Why ? 
For what purpose? For what reason?). These are 
introduced by that, in order that, to the end that, 
so that, lest (that . . . not, negative purpose). 

1. Our teacher explains that we may understand. 

2. The teacher reads the lesson first in order to give 
us the correct pronunciation of the words . 

3. They gave me books so that I could study at 
home. 

4. He went to the university in order to learn 
engineering. 

5. Tie the dog that he may not bite anyone. 

6. I came here for the purpose of talking over some 
business matters with you. 

7. I shall tell you this lest you make mistakes. 

8. We are studying these clauses to the end that 
we may be able to use the language better. 

E. Clauses of Result. These are introduced by so that, 
or that (with so or such in the principal clause.) 


Adverb equivalents: causal clauses 


187 


1. He worked all night so that now his work is 
finished. 

2. He was so interested in learning as to go to 
school two years. 

3. The train has been delayed so that I shall he late 
for the meeting. 

4. I came upstairs so fast that I am out of breath. 

5. The weather was so dry that the plants died. 

6. There is such a dust that 1 cannot see. 

7. They made so much trouble that we were glad 
when they want away. 

8. They talk so much that we cannot learn our 
lesson. 

F. Causal Clauses (expressing the reason). These are 
introduced by because, since (= because), as (= 
because). 

1. David takes money from the bank because he 
wants to buy something. 

2. Since you have no time, you cannot go. 

3. We are glad that he is'well again. 

4. Because you did not understand, I was compelled 
to explain it to you. 

5. As you are not ready, we shall have to go with¬ 
out you. 

G. Conditional Clauses. These are introduced by if, 
provided, provided that, granted that, supposing 
(or suppose) that, on condition that, whoever, 
whenever; in negative conditions, by unless ; in 
double (or alternative) conditions, by whether .. or. 


188 


The elements of a sentence 


A conditional sentence is the statement of a thought, 
rather than the statement of an objective fact; and its 
variation from the meaning of the normal affirmative or 
negative sentence is not spelled out by means of words, 
but is expressed by the form of the conditional sentence 
itself. The ^/-clause, or condition, states what is assumed; 
the principal clauses, or conclusion, states what follow 
from the condition. Both clauses alike are expressions 
of thought, not assertions of fact. 

Conditional sentences will be classified here according 
to the time and nature of the suppositions expressed by 
the if- clauses. 

(a) Simple conditions in present and past time 
(nothing being implied about whether the con¬ 
dition expressed by the i/-clause is or has been 
fulfilled or not). The ^/-clause in these sentences 
takes a present or past indicative, and the princi¬ 
pal clause takes any form of the verb that the 
general course of the speaker’s thought requires. 

1. If she is a good teacher, she wants us to learn. 

2. If the general came, he marched through the city. 

3. \If this man knows anything about the fire, let 
him tell us about it. 

4. If John knows how to go, will he not tell us? 

5. If there was frost, the flowers are dead. 

'6. If there was frost, the flowers were killed. 

7. If there was frost last night, the flowers will wilt 
to-day. 

(&) Conditions contrary to fact in present and past 
time (implying that the condition is not or was 
not fulfilled). 


Adverb-equivalents: conditions 


189 


In Present time: 

Conditional sentences contrary to fact in present 
time take the past indicative (or were, past subjunctive) 
in the i7-clause, and should or would with the infinitive 
in the principal clause. 

1. You do not hear me. 

If I stood there, and you sat directly opposite, 
you would hear me. 

If I were standing there (but I am not), and 
you were sitting directly opposite (but you are 
not), you would be hearing me. 

2. If he listened to you, he would understand what 
you say. 

3. If he were listening to you, he would be under¬ 
standing what you are saying. 

4. Were I in your place, I should go. 

Were I = If I were. 

In Past Time: 

Conditional sentences contrary to fact in past time 
take the past perfect in the ^/-clause and should have or 
would have in the principal clause. 

1. If I had told him to come, he would have come. 

2. Had he been there, you would have seen him. 
Had he been = if he had been. 

3. Had I seen him before he came, I should have 
told him not to come. 

4. Had he told the truth, he would not have been 

punished. 

(c) Future Conditions. There are no future facts; 
hence all assertions about the future are necessarily 
uncertain to some extent. Yesterday and to-morrow 
are notions of entirely different orders. The 
former is a fact; the latter is an expectation. The 
idea of futurity itself has an element of doubt in it. 


190 


The elements of a sentence 


Simple Future Conditions (not calling attention to 
the doubt involved in the suppositions). 

Logically, these sentences require the future indi¬ 
cative in both clauses, taking shall, however, in the if- 
clause. ‘If it shall rain to-morrow, they will not come.’ 
In English, however, the ^/-clause usually takes the pre¬ 
sent indicative, which, the student will observe, is then 
used to make a statement about the future. ‘If it rains 
to-morrow, they will not come/ 

1. If I have time to-morrow, I shall go to the 
theater. 

2. If Harriet comes, we shall go to see you the next 
day. 

3. If he buys candy, he will give us some. 

4. I shall give you some of our paper, if we get it 
this afternoon- 

5. If I learn all these lessons this year, I shall not 
come to this school next year. 

Future conditions that call attention to the doubt 
involved in the suppositions. 

These sentences take should in the if -clause and 
should or would in the principal clause. They may also 
take the past subjunctive were or even the past indicative 
in the if-causes. 

1. If it should rain, I should not go. 

2. If he shoidd come, we should go to see you the 
next day. 

3. If they shoidd go next week, I ought to go with 
them. 

4. If you should have the time, you must write to 

him to-morrow. , 

5. If it were to rain (past subjunctive), I should 
not make garden. 

6. If it rained (to-morrow), he would come. 


Indirect discourse 


191 


INDIRECT DISCOURSE (INDIRECT NARRATION) 

Indirect discourse, or indirect narration, consists 
of statements in the shape of noun-clauses used with verbs 
meaning to say, tell, think and the like. If the verb is 
an active verb, the clause is the object of the verb. 


Direct statement: This lesson is easy. 

Direct quotation: Mary says, “This lesson is easy.” 

Indirect quotation: 

Mary says that this lesson is easy. 

Mary said that this lesson was easy. 

Mary had said that this lesson was easy. 


Direct statement: We have learned the lesson. 

Direct quotation: Mary says, “We have learned the 
lesson. ’ ’ 


Indirect quotation: 

Mary says that we have learned the lesson. 
Mary said that we had learned the lesson. 
Mary had said that we had learned the lesson. 


Future Verbs Quoted in Indirect Discourse 

Direct statement: I shall go. (Mary’s thought.) 

Indirect quotation: 

Mary thinks that she shall go. 

Mary thought that she should go. 

Mary had thought that she should go. 


192 


The elements of a sentence 


Direct statement: Mary will go soon. (John’s knowl¬ 
edge.) 

Indirect quotation: 

John knows that Mary will go soon. 

John knew that Mary would go soon. 

John had known that Mary would go soon. 

Direct statement: I will do it in spite of you. (Mary’s 
thought.) 

Indirect quotation: 

Mary says that she will do it in spite of you. 
Mary said that she would do it in spite of you. 
Mary had said that she would do it in spite of 
you. 


Direct statement: You will learn this easily. (Mary to 
Jane.) 


Indirect quotation: 

Mary says that I shall learn this easily. 
(Jane’s report.) 

Mary said that I should learn this easily. 
Mary had said that I should learn this easily. 


In indirect discourse, if the verb of saying or think¬ 
ing is in the past or past perfect tense, the present tense 
of the direct becomes past, and the perfect becomes the 
past perfect. Accordingly, shall and will of the direct 
become should and would in the indirect. A general 
truth, however, may always be expressed by a veid) in 
the present tense. ‘Our teacher told us that the earth 
is constantly in motion’ (quotation of a general truth). 
‘Our teacher had told us that the earth is constantly 
in motion.’ 


Indirect discourse 


193 


When the verb of telling or thinking is in the pas¬ 
sive voice three constructions may occur. 

1. That Jane wants to buy a house is reported. 

That Jane wanted to buy a house was reported. 

- That Jane had wanted to buy a house was re¬ 
ported. 

2. It is reported that Jane ivants to buy a house. 

It was reported that Jane umnted to buy a house. 
It had been reported that Jane wanted to buy 
a house. 

3. Jane is reported to be wanting to buy a house. 
Jane was reported to be wanting to buy a house. 
Jane had been reported to be wanting to buy 
a house. 

A noun clause introduced by that is used after it 
seems, it is true, and it is evident, and similar expressions. 

1. It seems that Jane wants to buy a house. 

2. It is evident that he stole the money. 

3. It is true that Mr. Jones has gone to Europe. 


Statements in indirect discourse are noun clauses and 
may be used in the following constructions: 

1. Joe said that he would write soon, (object of the verb) 

2. That Joe is coming this week has been reported, 
(subject of the sentence) 

3. My idea is that he will not come, (predicate nomi¬ 
native) 

4. Your thought, that this is best, is correct, (apposition) 


194 


The elements of a sentence 


1. He who wishes to use the English language with pre¬ 
cision must consider that he shall have to study dili¬ 
gently. (His consideration, “I shall have to study 
diligently). 

2. Mary has an idea that she should like to travel. 
(Mary’s idea, “I should like to travel.”) 

3. I am told that John believes that he shall not re¬ 

main in this country for more than a year. (John’s 
belief, “I shall not remain....”) 

4. That boy declares that he will run away from school, 
and that his father shall not catch him. (Boy’s dec¬ 
laration, 1 ‘ I will run away from school, and my 
father shall not catch me.”) 

5. Mary was reported to have bought a hat, and the hat 

was said to be the most becoming hat that Mary 
ever had. (The reports, “Mary bought a hat.” “The 
hat is the most becoming...”) 

6. She told me that I should always be welcome at their 
house, and I told her that she would always be wel¬ 
come at our house. (Her speech to me, “You will 
always be welcome at our house.” My speech to her, 
“You will always be welcome at our house.” 


INDIRECT QUESTIONS 

Mary asks, “What is this!” (Direct question) 
Mary askes what this is. 

Mary asked what this was. 

Mary had asked what this was. 

Mary asks, “Who has a pen?” 

Mary asks who has a pen. 

Mary asked who had a pen. 

Mary had asked who had a pen. 




Indirect questions 


195 


Mary asks me, “Where did you get it?” 

Mary asks me where I got it. 

Mary asked me where I got it. 

Mary had asked me where I got it. 

Mary asks, “When did James come?” 

Mary asks when James came. 

Mary asked ivhen James came. 

Mary had asked when James came. 

Mary asks, “What shall I do?” 

Mary asks what she shall do. 

Mary asked what she should do. 

Mary had asked what she should do. 

Mary asks, “Do you understand this lesson?” 

Mary asks whether (or if) I understand this lesson. 
Mary asked whether (or if) 1 understood this lesson. 
Mary had asked whether (or if) 1 understood this lesson. 

Mary asks, “Shall I write now?” 

Mary asks if she shall write now. 

Mary asked if she should write now. 

Mary had asked if she should write now. 

It will be noticed that the verbs in indirect questions 
follow the rule for indirect discourse. 

Indirect questions are usually noun clauses, and may 
be used in various noun constructions: object of the verb, 
subject of the sentence, predicate nominative, as ap- 
positive, as object of a preposition. The following sen¬ 
tences are examples of the construction: 

1. As object of a verb: 

Mary asks what she shall do. 

Mary asks what to do. 

2. Subject of the sentence: 

What to do is the question. 

What shall I do is the question. 


196 


The elements of a sentence 


3. Predicate nominative: 

The question is what shall I do? 

The question is what to do f 

4. As appositive: 

The question, what she shall do, has not been decided. 
The question, what to do, has not been decided. 

5. Object of a preposition: 

There is some doubt about ivhat she shall do. 

There was some doubt about what she was to do. 

1. That man asked me whether I had been in the United 
States long, or if I had just arrived. 

2. He also wanted to know if I had been studying in 
this school ever since I came to this country. 

3. The teacher told me to ask the janitor if he would 
give us a little more heat. 

4. I shall consider well whether I shall go to work now 
or whether I shall continue my study here. 

5. What kind of work to engage in here is a question 
that is difficult for me to decide just now. 

6. I heard that my friend was ill and I am anxious to 
know how he is to-day. 

7. Last week I thought that I should go to New York on 
next Saturday; but now there is some doubt as to 
whether I shall go at all or not. 

8. My employer asked me why I did not take my vaca¬ 
tion now, and I asked him if he thought I could not 
take it later. 

9. We did not know yesterday who stole the goods: nor 
do we know to-day which way be went after he stole 
them; indeed, we do not know yet what goods he has 
actually stolen. 


Indirect questions 


197 


1. He wanted to know where John went. 

2. He tried to find out where John went. 

3. He asked me how to do it. 

4. He inquired why I did not go. 

5. He wanted to be informed which road to take. 

6. He wished to learn how far I had gone. 

7. He wondered what I had done with his pencil. 

8. He ivanted to get an idea of what was the cause of 
the trouble. 

9. He expected to find out who was elected. 

10. He ivanted to be informed about whether I should go 
with him. 

11. He ivanted me to tell him how much I paid for the 
house. 

12. He would like to know why I did not go. 

1. I know why they persist in taking our pencils. 

2. I have an idea of how many persons are involved. 

3. I ought to find out where they are. 

4. I must find out why he did not come. 

5. It is best for me to know what the trouble is. 

6. I am obliged to get the information about how many 
persons were there. 

7. I...have to know wherein the difficulty lies. 

8. It is necessary for me to learn why he wrote this 
letter. 

9. I should like to know who the intruder is. 



198 


The elements of a sentence 


1. If he wanted to know where John went, he should 
have asked me. 

2. If he found out where John went, he must have found 
it out from Harry. 

3. If he had asked me how to do it, I should have told 
him. 

4. If he inquired of you why I did not go, you should 
have told him why. 

5. If he inquired of you which road to take, I am sure 
you directed him to the best road. 

6. If he wished to learn how far I had gone, I hope that 
you informed him correctly. 

7. If he wondered what I had done with his pencil, I 
hope that you told him that I had it in my pocket. 

8. If he wanted.to get an idea of what was the cause 
of the trouble, I am sure you gave him a clear idea 
of it all. 

9. If he expected to find out who was elected, you were 
the very man to tell him. 

10. If he wanted to be informed about whether I should 
go with him, he should have asked me about it. 

11. If he had asked me to tell him what I paid for the 
house, I should have evaded his question. 

12. If he wanted to know why I did not go, I trust you 
did not tell him why. 

13. If I knew why they persisted in taking our pencils, 
I should know what to do about it. 

14. If I had any idea of how many persons were involved, 
I should be better prepared to handle the matter. 

15. If I ought to find out where they are, I will certainly 
do it. 


Familiar Quotations 


199 


FAMILIAR QUOTATIONS 

1. Never put off till to-morrow what you can do to-day. 

—Benjamin Franklin. 

2. Lost time is never found again. 

3. Honesty is the best policy— Cervantes. 

4. Look before you leap.— Cervantes. 

5. Haste makes waste.— John Hey wood. 

6. Rome was not built in a day.— Cervantes. 

7. An idle brain is the devil’s workshop. 

8. Diligence is the mother of good fortune.— Cervantes. 

9. Procrastination is the thief of time.— Edward Young. 

10. Do unto others as you would have others do unto 
you..— Matt. 7-12. 

11. A good name is rather to be chosen than great riches. 

— Cervantes. 

12. Happy is the man who lives content with his lot. 

13. It takes a long time to bring excellence to maturity. 

—Publius Syrus. 

14. If you have knowledge, let others light their candles 
at it.— Thomas Fuller. 

15. Experience keeps a dear school, but fools will learn 
in no other.— Benjamin Franklin. 

16. If at first you don’t succeed, try and try again. 

17. If you abolish confidence between man and man, 
every human bond of union is broken. 

18. The measure of a man’s life is the well spending of 
it, and not its length.— Plutarch. 


200 


Christopher Columbus 


19. Silver and gold are not the only coin; virtue, too, 
passes current all the world over.— Euripides. 

20. God grants liberty to those who love it and are always 
ready to guard and defend it .—Daniel Webster. 

21. Liberty without obedience is confusion; obedience 
without liberty is slavery. 

22. Labor to keep alive in your breast that little spark 
of celestial fire,—conscience. 

23. Let us have faith that right makes might; and in that 
faith let us to the end dare to do our duty as we 
understand it .—Abraham Lincoln. 

24. Let every man be occupied, and occupied in the high¬ 
est employment of which his nature is capable, and 
die with the consciousness that he has done his best. 

CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS 

Christopher Columbus, the discoverer of America, 
was born in Genoa, a seaport of Italy, about 1430. His 
father was a wool-comber; but Christopher did not like 
that kind of life, and while still quite a boy, he decided 
to become a sailor. His father sent him to school until 
he was fourteen years old. Then he went to. sea where 
he could learn seamanship. 

At that time the life of a sailor was full of adventure 
and danger; so Columbus had many exciting experiences. 
Once during a battle with a vessel off the coast of 
Portugal, he was compelled to leave his boat and swim to 
shore a long distance away. He afterward lived in 
Portugal a number of years, and while there, he married 
the daughter of a sea captain. For some time he earned 
his living, partly by making sea voyages, and partly by 
drawing maps and selling them. 

At that time the merchants of Europe had an ex¬ 
tensive trade with India; but there was no short and 


Henry Hudson 


201 


safe route of travel. Columbus had given much time to 
the study of the earth, its size, its form, and the locations 
of the different countries on it. He believed that the 
earth was a sphere, and that by sailing westward from 
Europe he could find a water route to India. Finally 
he decided to make a trial voyage. He went here and 
there in Portugal, seeking help. But people did not think 
his ideas were sensible; so they refused him assistance. 

He then went to Spain. After waiting a long time, 
King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella agreed to help him. 
At last they equipped three small vessels, and Columbus 
and his sailors set sail on their voyage across the Atlantic. 
They left the port of Palos, Spain, on August 3, 1492, 
and on Friday, October 12, landed on an island a short 
distance from what is now Florida. This island they 
named San Salvador. They took possession of it for the 
king and queen of Spain. 

HENRY HUDSON 

Henry Hudson, an English navigator who had won 
some distinction by making daring voyages, was employed 
by a company of Dutch merchants and was sent out on 
a voyage of discovery around the northern coast of 
Europe for the purpose of finding a passage to China. 
Hudson and his party set sail from the port of Amster¬ 
dam in 1609, and, as directed by the Dutch Company, 
went toward the northeast. They sailed on and on, 
through fog and ice, until they became discouraged, when 
they turned around and sailed for America. Hudson 
was a friend of the great Captain John Smith, who had 
already made a voyage to America and had told him 
about it, and who had given him maps showing routes of 
travel across the Atlantic. Hudson and his sailors finally 
reached the coast near the Chesapeake Bay; but on ac¬ 
count of stormy weather they did not land. Instead, 
they sailed northward along the coast until they came to 
the mouth of a large river. They entered this river and 


202 


Henry Hudson 


sailed up its course for several days; but they saw nothing 
of a way that might lead to China. However, they met 
some Indians along the river, and Hudson realized that 
a profitable business in fur trading might be started with 
them. With nothing more accomplished, they returned to 
Amsterdam leaving the name Hudson for the newly dis¬ 
covered river. 

Soon after Hudson returned and gave a report of his 
trip, some Dutch merchants sent men to establish trading 
stations along the Hudson River where merchants might 
trade furs with the Indians. In 1623 several trading 
stations were established and some forts were built. The 
Dutch now felt that they had possession of a part of 
America, and they named their land New Netherlands. It 
was decided to buy from the Indians, this large island 
at the mouth of the Hudson River and build a strong 
fort on it. This island, then called Manhattan, having an 
area of fourteen thousand acres, was bought for twenty- 
four dollars, and on it a fort was built and nained New 
Amsterdam. The Dutch predicted that at this place 
some time in the future would be the largest city 
in America. It is said that in 1643 v eighteen different 
languages were spoken on the Island of Manhattan, and 
that in 1664 the population had grown to fifteen hundred. 

The English claimed this land, held by the Dutch, 
because the Cabots had discovered it and had taken pos¬ 
session of it for England. King Charles had been watch¬ 
ing the progress of the Dutch colony, and one day in 
1664 some English vessels appeared at the mouth of the 
Hudson River and demanded that New Netherlands be 
given up to them. Because the Dutch had not the 
strength to hold out against the English, they had to 
surrender their colony. When the English got possession 
of New Netherlands they changed its name to New York. 
They also changed the name of New Amsterdam to New 
York. 

The prediction of the Dutch, that here at the mouth 


The Pilgrims 


203 


of this great river sometime would stand the largest city 
in America, did come true. New York has become the 
largest city in America; and to-day it is one of the 
busiest ports in all the world. 

The year after Hudson discovered the great river, 
now called the Hudson River, he set out on another 
voyage of discovery. This time he sailed in a north¬ 
western direction from Europe in the hope of finding a 
passage through the northern part of America. On the 
way a dispute arose between Hudson and his sailors, and 
Hudson was put into a little boat and set adrift on the 
waters of the bay that now bears his name. Nothing 
afterward was ever heard of him. 

THE PILGRIMS 

The Pilgrims were people of England who objected 
to the form of worship used in the Church of England. 
King James punished all who refused to worship accord¬ 
ing to the form of the English Church and to give money 
to its support. So objectionable was this to some of his 
subjects that they left the country and went to Holland 
in search of religious freedom. But they were not long 
satisfied with the change. There they were not permitted 
to own land; and then too they did not want their 
children to grow up and become Dutch-speaking people. 
They wanted above all things to remain English; so, dis¬ 
satisfied in Holland, they soon returned to England with 
the idea of coming to America. Here in the wilderness 
they hoped to establish homes for themselves and to be 
free from restraint of religious faith and worship. 

With the thought of a new England in America, 
founded upon their own ideals of religious and civil 
rights. The Pilgrims had the courage to leave their 
native land and to cross the broad Atlantic. In that 
little sailing vessel, the Mayflower, came to America some 
of the sturdiest people that England ever produced. They 


204 


The Pilgrims 


were independent, industrious, God-fearing. Some of 
them were also learned. 

The departure of the Pilgrims from England marks 
a period in history. 

Toward the last of November in 1620 this company 
of about a hundred persons, with Captain Miles Standish 
as their leader, landed on Cape Cod, not far from where 
Boston now is. Just before the men of the party left 
the vessel, they gathered together and signed a compact, 
by which they agreed among themselves to form a colony 
that should be governed by just and equal laws, estab¬ 
lished from time to time by common consent. 

A short time after landing they found a suitable 
place to live and about Christmas began to cut trees 
and build houses. Winter came on, and they were not 
prepared for its hardships. Many of them became ill, 
and about half their number died. But the survivors 
were not the kind to give up; they were not easily dis¬ 
couraged by hardships. 

In the spring and summer following that dreadful 
winter their crops grew, and the colony prospered. They 
made friends with the Indians and feared no hostilities 
from them. They felt sure also that at last they had 
found the land that they had hoped for so long. In the 
fall they decided to have a great feast and to unite in 
giving thanks to God for the many blessings they had 
received. They invited the Indians also to meet with 
them, and all sat down together—the first Thanksgiving 
Day in America. 

These people who came in the Mayflower, as well as 
others like them who came afterward, had much to do with 
determining the character of the new nation. Of the 
Pilgrims, a great Englishman has said, “God sifted a 
whole nation that he might send choice grain into the 
wilderness. ’ ’ 


Benjamin Franklin 


205 


BENJAMIN FRANKLIN 

Benjamin Franklin was a native of Boston. He was 
born in 1706. His father was a poor man who earned 
the living for a large family by making soap and candles. 
Benjamin was sent to school until he was ten years old; 
then he had to stop and go into his father’s factory and 
help make candles. He did not like this kind of work; 
and because he was a studious boy, his father put him to 
work in a printing office that was conducted by James 
Franklin, one of Benjamin’s brothers. These two brothers 
did not get along well together; so Benjamin left and 
went to Philadelphia. 

With but one dollar in his pocket, he reached the city 
and in a few days found work in a printing office. Al¬ 
though only seventeen years of age, he already had some 
knowledge of printing and was able to do satisfactory 
work in a strange office. 

He continued to study; and by and by got a print¬ 
ing press of ‘ his own, and edited and printed the best 
newspaper in the colonies. He also published an almanac 
that became widely known for the wise proverbs it con¬ 
tained. Among them were these: “If you want a thing 
well done, do it yourself,” and “Diligence is the mother 
of good luck.” Although a busy man, he found time for 
study all his life. From one of his scientific experiments 
he became famous all oyer the world. By means of a 
kite he discovered that lightning and electricity were the 
same. 

But Franklin’s achievements were not confined to 
scientific pursuits and matters of general culture. He 
did much to promote the welfare of his city; he organized 
the first fire company; he started the first library; he 
helped to build the first academy—now the University of 
Pennsylvania. 

His influence spread even further than his own 
colony. He gave valuable assistance in conducting the 


206 


George Washington 


political affairs of other colonies as well. At one time 
he was postmaster-general of all the colonies. On several 
occasions he went to Europe as the agent of his own 
colony or of others. When the colonies decided to be¬ 
come independent of England, Franklin helped to draft 
the Declaration of Independence. During the Revolution, 
when upwards of seventy years of age, he went to 
France as agent for the colonies and procured for them 
funds with which to pay the soldiers. He helped to make 
the treaty which ended the war. Afterwards, although 
eighty-one years old he took a foremost part in framing 
the Constitution of the United States in 1787. He died 
three years later at the age of eighty-four. 

GEORGE WASHINGTON 

George Washington, the first president of the United 
States, was born on a plantation in Virginia, on Febru¬ 
ary 22, 1732. At the death of his father, George, who 
was then only eleven years old, was left along with his 
brothers and sisters in the care of his mother. He went 
to a little country school, where he learned to read and 
to do sums in arithmetic. He was a good student and a 
great favorite with his playmates. 

Lawrence Washington, George’s eldest brother, had 
married a Miss Fairfax whose father lived in Virginia 
and was a relative of Lord Fairfax, a rich land owner 
of the colony. When George was fourteen years of age, 
Lawrence took him to visit Lord Fairfax. This old man 
of sixty took a liking to George, and they became great 
friends. Lord Fairfax had been told that people were 
settling on his land, a hundred miles or so west of the 
Blue Ridge Mountains. Washington was then sixteen, 
and had some knowledge of surveying; so Fairfax em¬ 
ployed him to go over the mountains and measure the 
land and establish the boundary lines. Washington did 
his work so well that the Governor of Virginia after¬ 
ward employed him as public surveyor for the colony. 


George Washington 207 

A little later the French tried to establish themselves 
west of the Allegheny Mountains, and they began to 
build forts along the rivers. The Governor of Virginia 
gave Washington, who was then twenty-one years old, 
the military title of major and sent him to order the 
French to leave this territory. The entire distance there 
and back was about a thousand miles. Washington, ac¬ 
companied by one white man and'several friendly Indians 
as guides, had to pass through thick forests and across 
mountains and broad rivers full of floating ice. Then 
too, many of the Indians in the region that Washington 
and his men passed through had allied themselves with 
the French to fight against the English. Washington was 
a strong, brave young man, and he made his way safely 
to the French headquarters. He informed the French 
commander of the object of his visit, but the French re¬ 
fused to leave. When the answer was brought back to 
the Governor of Virginia, Washington was made colonel 
and sent out with an army of one hundred and fifty men 
to drive the French from the territory near the junction 
of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers. At first the 
English were defeated. But this war, called the French 
and Indian War, lasted several years and resulted in the 
English getting possession of the land from the Atlantic 
to the Mississippi River. 

A few years later the American colonies had a war 
with England. The war was begun by the colonists, 
chiefly because of certain grievances about taxes, and was 
brought on by the acts of George III, Mr. Grenville, 
and Lord North. It lasted eight years and resulted in 
the independence of the colonies. 

Shortly after the war ended the people of all the 
colonies formed a new nation, preserving the colonies, 
however, as independent states for certain functions of 
government. By common consent they selected George 
Washington to be the first president, recognizing him 
as pre-eminent among his fellow-countrymen, as well as 


208 


Abraham Lincoln 


relying still on his hand to guide them in their new 
venture in government. 

The verdict of his fellow-countrymen has been ap¬ 
proved by the judgment of history. He was, indeed, as 
Henry Lee said of him at the time of his death, “ First 
in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his 
countrymen. ’ ’ 


ABRAHAM LINCOLN 

Abraham Lincoln was the sixteenth president of the 
United States. He was born in Hardin County, Ken¬ 
tucky, on February .12, 1809. His father was a poor 
pioneer, who had a small piece of barren land in the 
backwoods. When Abe was seven years old the family 
moved to Indiana. Here also the land was unculti¬ 
vated, and Lincoln’s father had to clear the lot where 
their new home was to be. He cut the trees and made 
the logs out of which he built a crude dwelling. Winter 
came on before the cabin was finished, and the Lincoln 
family was compelled to ‘live through the cold months 
with only three sides of the cabin enclosed. By the next 
winter they had built a better house, which they furnish¬ 
ed with new furniture hewn from rough logs; and after 
they had moved into this new home they were more com¬ 
fortable than they had ever been before. The hardships 
of pioneer life, however, were too much for Lincoln’s 
mother, who died soon after they had moved into their 
new home. To little Abe his mother’s death was a great 
sorrow—a sorrow that he felt as long as he lived. It 
was also a great loss to him. His loss was in part made 
up to him from the fact that his father married soon 
again, and his new mother was a kind woman, who took 
a great interest in Abe and helped him make the best 
of his limited opportunities. Lincoln went to school at 
intervals from his eighth year to his fifteenth year. The 
total amount of schooling which he received was less 
Ilian a year. 


Abraham Lincoln 


209 


It was necessary for him to earn his living at a very 
early age. When only eight years old he is said to have 
cut the fire-wood that was used in their cabin; and from 
that time on, to have worked in the forest, at first help¬ 
ing to cut logs, and afterwards splitting rails. This 
work he did for neighbors in order that he might earn 
money. 

Corn and other products of that region were at that 
time taken to market by flat-boat down the Ohio and 
Mississippi rivers to New Orleans. Lincoln was employed 
by a neighbor to go on one of these voyages, two thousand 
miles by flat-boat. On the trip he had many wonderful 
experiences. Once while at New Orleans he saw negro 
slaves bought and sold at public auction in the market 
place. This sight made a profound impression on him, 
which he never forgot. 

When he returned home, the family moved to Illinois. 
Here again they had to build a log cabin. Soon after 
their arrival Lincoln became the village postmaster. His 
duties did not occupy all his time; so he began the 
study of law. It is said that he walked a distance of 
twenty miles to borrow law books from a friend. By 
and by he practised law. He was by nature sympathetic, 
earnest, and sincere, as well as honest in his dealings. He 
was also ambitious and a natural leader, masterful, though 
unobtrusive. From a very early age he won general con¬ 
fidence and respect. In the practice of law he had great 
success as an advocate. At twenty-five he was elected to 
the state legislature. It is said that when he went into 
office he walked to the capitol, because he was too poor 
to hire a horse. He was a member of the legislature 
for eight years. A little later he represented his district 
in Congress for a term. A short time after that he be¬ 
came a candidate for United States senator against 
Stephen A. Douglas, by whom he was defeated. During 
the campaign the candidates held a series of memorable 
debates, in which they discussed the slavery question. 


210 


Abraham Lincoln 


Lincoln was elected president of the United States in 
1860. His election was received throughout the South 
with general disappointment and dismay, because the peo¬ 
ple there thought that Lincoln would oppose the holding 
of slaves by the people of any state. Soon the southern 
states tried to secede, and the great Civil War was on. 
It began in 1861, and in 1862 Lincoln issued the Emanci¬ 
pation Proclamation, by which he set free all the slaves 
held within any state that was in rebellion against the 
United States. The war ended in April 1865; and it was 
Lincoln’s efforts more than anyone else’s that saved the 
nation. 

About the time the war ended, Lincoln, while at¬ 
tending a theater, was shot by an assassin. He died the 
next morning, and his body was laid to rest in Spring- 
field, Illinois. After the burial service the Second In¬ 
augural Address was read over his grave; and as Lord 
Charnwood says in his biography of Lincoln, what bet¬ 
ter words than his own could have been chosen to honor 
one who ‘with malice toward none, with charity for all, 
with firmness in the right, as God gave him to see the 
right, had striven on to finish the work he was in.’ 


President Lincoln’s Letter to Mrs. Bixby 211 
PRESIDENT LINCOLN’S LETTER TO MRS. BIXBY 

A Specimen of Perfect English 

Washington, Nov. 21, 1864. 

Executive Mansion, 

To Mrs. Bixby, Boston, Mass. 

Dear Madam: 

I have been shown in the files of the War Depart¬ 
ment a statement of the Adjutant General of Massa¬ 
chusetts that you are the mother of five sons who have 
died gloriously on the field of battle. I feel how weak 
and fruitless must be any word of mine which should 
attempt to beguile you from the grief of a loss so over¬ 
whelming. But I cannot refrain from tendering you the 
consolation that may be found in the thanks of the re¬ 
public they died to save. I pray that our Heavenly 
Father may assuage the anguish of your bereavement, 
and leave you only the cherished memory of the loved 
aud lost, and the solemn pride that must be yours to 
have laid so costly a sacrifice upon the altar of freedom. 

Yours very sincerely and respectfully. 

A. Lincoln. 


PREAMBLE TO THE CONSTITUTION OF THE 
UNITED STATES 

We, the people of the United States, in order to form 
a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic 
tranquillity, provide for the common defense, promote 
the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty 
to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish 
this Constitution for the United States of America. 


212 


.America 


AMERICA 

My country, ’tis of thee 
Sweet land of liberty, 

Of thee I sing; 

Land where my fathers died, 
Land of the Pilgrim’s pride, 
From ev’ry mountain side, 

Let freedom ring. 

My native country, thee, 

Land of the noble free, 

Thy name I love; 

I love thy rocks and rills, 
Thy woods and templed hills, 
My heart with rapture thrills, 
Like that above. 

Let music swell the breeze, 
And ring from all the trees, 
Sweet freedom’s song; 

Let mortal tongues awake, 

Let all that breathe partake, 
Let rocks their silence break, 
The sound prolong. 

Our father’s God, to Thee, 
Author of liberty, 

To Thee we sing; 

Long may our land be bright 
With freedom’s holy light, 
Protect us by Thy might, 
Great God, our King. 


Samuel Francis Smith. 


The Star Spangled Banner 


213 


THE STAR SPANGLED BANNER 

Oh, say can you see, by the dawn’s early light, 

What so proudly we hailed at the twilight’s last gleam¬ 
ing? 

Whose broad stripes and bright stars, thro’ the peril¬ 
ous fight, 

O’er the ramparts we watched were so gallantly stream¬ 
ing? 

And the rockets red glare, the bombs bursting in air, 
Gave proof thro’ the night that our flag was still there. 
Oh, say does the star-spangled banner yet wave 
O’er the land of the free and the home of the brave? 

On the shore, dimly seen thro’ the mists of the deep, 
Where the foe’s haughty host in dread silence reposes, 
What is that which the breeze, o’er the towering steep, 
As it fitfully blows, half conceals, half discloses? 

Now it catches the gleam of the morning’s first beam, 

In full glory reflected now shines on the stream: 

’Tis the star-spangled banner: oh, long may it wave 
O^er the land of the free and the home of the brave? 

Oh, thus be it e’er when free men shall stand 
Between their loved homes and the war’s desolation; 
Blest with vict’ry and peace, may the heav ’n-rescued 
land 

Praise the Pow’r that has made and preserved us a 
nation! 

Then conquer we must, when our cause it is just; 

And this be our motto: “In God is our trust!” 

And the star-spangled banner in triumph shall wave 
O’er the land of the free and the home of the brave! 


Francis Scott Key. 



Appendix 































































- 





























































































































































































Numerals 


217 


NUMERALS 


Roman 

Notation 


Arabic 

Notation 


Ordinals 


I. 

1 one 

1st 

first 

II. 

2 two 

2nd 

second 

III. 

3 three 

3rd 

third 

IV. 

4 four 

4th 

fourth 

V. 

5 five 

5th 

fifth 

VI. 

6 six 

6th 

sixth 

VII. 

7 seven 

7th 

seventh 

VIII. 

8 eight 

8th 

eighth 

IX. 

9 nine 

9th 

ninth 

X. 

10 ten 

10th 

tenth 

XI. 

11 eleven 

11th 

eleventh 

XII. 

12 twelve 

12th 

twelfth 

XIII. 

13 thirteen 

13th 

thirteenth 

XIV. 

14 fourteen 

14th 

fourteenth 

XV. 

15 fifteen 

15th 

fifteenth 

XVI. 

16 sixteen 

16 th 

sixteenth 

XVII. 

17 seventeen 

17th 

seventeenth 

XVIII. 

18 eighteen 

18th 

eighteenth 

XIX. 

19 nineteen 

19th 

nineteenth 

XX. 

20 twenty 

20th 

twentieth 

XXI. 

21 twenty-one 

21st 

twenty-first 

XXX. 

30 thirty 

30th 

thirtieth 

XL. 

40 forty 

40th 

fortieth 

L. 

50 fifty 

50th 

fiftieth 

LX. 

60 sixty 

60th 

sixtieth 

LXX. 

70 seventy 

70th 

seventieth 

LXXX. 

80 eighty 

80th 

eightieth 

XC. 

90 ninety 

90th 

ninetieth 

c. 

100 one hundred 

100th 

one hundredth 

D. 

500 five hundred 

500th 

five hundredth 

M. 

1000 one thousand 

1000th 

one thousandth 

MM. 

2000 two thousand 

2000th 

two thousandth 

V. 

5000 five thousand 

5000th 

five thousandth 


218 


Appendix 


NUMERICAL EXPRESSIONS AND SIGNS 

I. Addition: 

How many are two and three? 

Two and three are five. 

How much is two plus three? 

Two plus three is five. 

Two plus three* equals five. (2+3=5) 

Problem in addition: 

246 addend 
468 addend 
234 addend 

Answer 948 sum or amount 


II. Subtraction: 

What is the difference between ten and six? 

The difference is four. 

What is ten minus six? 

Ten minus six is four. 

Ten minus six equal four. (10—6=4) 

Problem in subtraction: 

753 minuend 
432 subtrahend 

Answer 321 difference or remainder 


III. Multiplication: 

How many are four times two? 

Four times two are eight. 

Four times two equals eight. (2X4=8) 
What is the product of four and two? 
The product of four and two is eight. 




Numerical expressions and signs 


219 


Problem in multiplication: 

2453 multiplicand 
23 multiplier 

7359 

4906 

Answer 56419 product 


IV. Division: 

What is the quotient of ten divided by two? 
The quotient of ten divided by two is five. 

How many times is two contained in ten? 

Two is contained in ten five times. 

What is ten divided by two? 

Ten divided by two equals five. (10—2=5) 


Problems in division: 

1. Divisor 6 ) 12342 dividend 

Answer 2057 quotient 

2502 quotient 

2. Divisor 25 ) 62552 dividend 

50 

~125 

125 


52 

50 

2 remainder 






220 


Appendix 


COMMON FRACTIONS 

One (1) is a unit or a whole number. 

One half (1/2) is a fractional part of a thing. 

1. One half plus one half equals one. 
l/2+l/2=l 

2. One fourth plus one fourth plus one fourth plus one 
rourth equals one. 

1/4+1 /4+1 /4+1/4—1 

3. One half of twenty equals ten. 

1/2 of 20=10 

4. One third of fifteen equals five. 

1/3 of 15=5 

5. One fourth of eight equals two. 

1/4 of 8=2 

6. Two fourths of eight equals four. 

2/4 of 8=4 

7. Three fourths of eight equals six. 

3/4 of 8=6 

1/ numerator 
/2 denominator 


DECIMAL FRACTIONS 


1/10 

.1 

= one tenth 

1/100 

.01 

= one hundredth 

1/1000 

.001 

= one thousandth 

1/10000 

.0001 

= one ten-thousandth 

1/100000 

.00001 

= one hundred thousandth 


1.1 one and one tenth 

10.01 ten and one hundredth 

100.001 one hundred and one thousandth 

1000.0001 one thousand and one ten-thousandth 

10000.00001 ten thousand and one hundred thousandth 
1000000.000001 one million and one millionth 


Common weights and measures 


221 


COMMON WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 
LONG MEASURE TABLE 


12 inches (in.) 

1 foot (ft.). 

3 feet 

1 yard (yd.). 

16y 2 feet 

1 rod (rd.). 

320 rods 

1 mile (mi.). 

5280 feet 

1 mile. 

SQUARE MEASURE TABLE 

144 square inches (sq. in.) 

1 square foot (sq.ft.). 

9 square feet 

1 square yard (sq. yd.). 

30^ square yards, or 


2721/4 square feet 

1 square rod (sq. rd.). 

160 square rods 

1 acre (A.). 

640 acres 

1 square mile (sq.m.). 

CUBIC MEASURE TABLE 

1728 cubic inches (cu. in.) 

1 cubic foot (cu. ft.). 

27 cubic feet 

1 cubic yard (cu. yd.). 

DRY MEASURE TABLE 

2 pints (pt.) 

1 quart (qt.). 

8 quarts 

1 peck (pk.). 

4 pecks 

1 bushel (bu.). 

LIQUID MEASURE TABLE 

4 gills (gi.) 

1 pint (pt.). 

2 pints 

1 quart (qt.). 

4 quarts 

1 gallon (gal.). 

AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT TABLE 

16 ounces (oz.) 

1 pound (lb.). 

100 pounds 

1 hundredweight (cwt.). 

2000 lbs. 

1 ton (T.). 


222 


Appendix 


PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS 


Present 

Past 

Indicative 

Indicative 

1st person 

1st person 

singular 

singular 

abolish 

abolished 

accent 

accented 

accept 

accepted 

accompany 

accompanied 

accomplish 

accomplished 

account 

accounted 

add 

added 

address 

addressed 

advance 

advanced 

advise 

advised 

agree 

agreed 

alarm 

alarmed 

allot 

allotted 

allow 

allowed 

ally 

allied 

am 

was 

amount 

amounted 

anger 

angered 

announce 

announced 

answer 

answered 

anticipate 

anticipated 

appear 

appeared 

appreciate 

appreciated 

approve 

approved 

arise 

arose 

arrange 

arranged 

arrive 

arrived 

ask 

asked 

assert 

asserted 

assign 

assigned 

assist 

assisted 

assuage 

assuaged 

attack 

attacked 

attempt 

attempted 

attend 

attended 

attract 

attracted 

awake 

awoke 


Past 

Present 

Participle 

Participle 

abolished 

abolishing 

accented 

accenting 

accepted 

accepting 

accompanied 

accompanying 

accomplished 

accomplishing 

accounted 

accounting 

added 

adding 

addressed 

addressing 

advanced 

advancing 

advised 

advising 

agreed 

agreeing 

alarmed 

alarming 

allotted 

allotting 

allowed 

allowing 

allied 

allying 

been 

being 

amounted 

amounting 

angered 

angering 

announced 

announcing 

answered 

answering 

anticipated 

anticipating 

appeared 

appearing 

appreciated 

appreciating 

approved 

approving 

arisen 

arising 

arranged 

arranging 

arrived 

arriving 

asked 

asking 

asserted 

asserting 

assigned 

assigning 

assisted 

assisting 

assuaged 

assuaging 

attacked 

attacking 

attempted 

attempting 

attended 

attending 

attracted 

attracting 

awaken, awaked 

awaking 


Principal parts of verbs 


223 


bark 

barked 

barked 

barking 

beam 

beamed 

beamed 

beaming 

beat 

beat 

beaten 

beating 

become 

became 

become 

becoming 

begin 

began 

begun 

beginning 

beguile 

beguiled 

beguiled 

beguiling 

behold 

beheld 

beheld 

beholding 

believe 

believed 

believed 

believing 

belong 

belonged 

belonged 

belonging 

bend 

bent 

bent 

bending 

bequeath 

bequeathed 

bequeathed 

bequeathing 

bereave 

bereaved, bereft 

bereaved 

bereaving 

beseech 

besought 

besought 

beseeching 

bid 

bade 

bidden 

bidding 

bind 

bound 

bound 

binding 

bite 

bit 

bitten 

biting 

bleed 

bled 

bled 

bleeding 

blow 

blew 

blown 

blowing 

borrow 

borrowed 

borrowed 

borrowing 

break 

broke 

broken 

breaking 

bring 

brought 

brought 

bringing 

brush 

brushed 

brhshed 

brushing 

build 

built 

built 

building 

burn 

burned, burnt 

burned, burnt 

burning 

burst 

burst 

burst 

bursting 

button 

buttoned 

buttoned 

buttoning 

buy 

bought 

bought 

buying 

calculate 

calculated 

calculated 

calculating 

call 

called 

called 

calling 

can 

could 



can (to preserve) canned 

canned 

canning 

care 

cared 

cared 

caring 

carry 

carried 

carried 

carrying 

catch 

caught 

caught 

catching 

cause 

caused 

caused 

causing 

cease 

ceased 

ceased 

ceasing 

celebrate 

celebrated 

celebrated 

celebrating 

change 

changed 

changed 

changing 

charge 

charged 

charged 

charging 

charm 

charmed 

charmed 

charming 

cherish 

cherished 

cherished 

cherishing 

chirp 

chirped 

chirped 

chirping 

choose 

chose 

chosen 

choosing 

claim 

claimed 

claimed 

claiming 




224 Appendix 


clean 

cleaned 

cleaned 

cleaning 

close 

closed 

closed 

closing 

clothe 

clothed 

clothed 

clothing 

comb 

combed 

combed 

combing 

come 

came 

come 

coming 

command 

commanded 

commanded 

commanding 

commit 

committed 

committed 

committing 

compare 

compared 

compared 

comparing 

compel 

compelled 

compelled 

compelling 

complete 

completed 

completed 

completing 

conceal 

concealed 

concealed 

concealing 

conduct 

conducted 

conducted 

conducting 

confide 

confided 

confided 

confiding 

confine 

confined 

confined 

confining 

confuse 

confused 

confused 

confusing 

connect 

connected 

connected 

connecting 

construct 

constructed 

constructed 

constructing 

contain 

contained 

contained 

containing 

content 

contented 

contented 

contenting 

continue 

continued 

continued 

continuing 

contrast 

contrasted 

contrasted 

contrasting 

cook 

cooked 

cooked 

cooking 

co-ordinate 

co-ordinated 

co-ordinated 

co-ordinating 

correct 

corrected 

corrected 

correcting 

cost 

cost 

cost 

costing 

cover 

covered 

covered 

covering 

creak 

creaked 

creaked 

creaking 

creep 

crept 

crept 

creeping 

cross 

crossed 

crossed 

crossing 

cry 

cried 

cried 

crying 

cultivate 

cultivated 

cultivated 

cultivating 

cut 

cut 

cut 

cutting 

dare 

dared 

dared 

daring 

deal 

dealt 

dealt 

dealing 

debate 

debated 

debated 

debating 

decide 

decided 

decided 

deciding 

declare 

declared 

declared 

declaring 

decline 

declined 

declined 

declining 

decrease 

decreased 

decreased 

decreasing 

defeat 

defeated 

defeated 

defeating 

defend 

defended 

defended 

defending 

define 

defined 

defined 

defining 

delay 

delayed 

delayed 

delaying 

deliver 

delivered 

delivered 

delivering 


Principal parts of verbs 


225 


denote 

denoted 

denoted 

denoting 

deny 

denied 

denied 

denying 

deposit 

deposited 

deposited 

depositing 

depress 

depressed 

depressed 

depressing 

desire 

desired 

desired 

desiring 

determine 

determined 

determined 

determining 

develop 

developed 

developed 

developing 

die 

died 

died 

dying 

differ 

differed 

differed 

differing 

dig 

dug 

dug 

digging 

direct 

directed 

directed 

directing 

disappear 

disappeared 

disappeared 

disappearing 

disappoint 

disappointed 

disappointed 

disappointing 

discharge 

discharged 

discharged 

discharging 

disclose 

disclosed 

disclosed 

disclosing 

discourage 

discouraged 

discouraged 

discouraging 

discover 

discovered 

discovered 

discovering 

discuss 

discussed 

discussed 

discussing 

dispense 

dispensed 

dispensed 

dispensing 

dispute 

disputed 

disputed 

disputing 

dissatisfy 

dissatisfied 

dissatisfied 

dissatisfying 

distinguish 

distinguished 

distinguished 

distinguishing 

disturb 

disturbed 

disturbed 

disturbing 

divide 

divided 

divided 

dividing 

do 

did 

done 

doing 

doubt 

doubted 

doubted 

doubting 

draft 

drafted 

drafted 

drafting 

draw 

drew 

drawn 

drawing 

dream 

dreamt, dreamed 

dreamt, dreamed 

dreaming 

dress 

dressed 

dressed 

dressing 

drink 

drank 

drunk 

drinking 

drive 

drove 

driven 

driving 

drop 

dropped 

dropped 

dropping 

drown 

drowned 

drowned 

drowning 

dwell 

dwelt 

dwelt 

dwelling 

earn 

earned 

earned 

earning 

eat 

ate 

eaten 

eating 

edit 

edited 

edited 

editing 

educate 

educated 

educated 

educating 

elect 

elected 

elected 

electing 

embarrass 

embarrassed 

embarrassed 

embarrassing 

emphasize 

emphasized 

emphasized 

emphasizing 

employ 

employed 

employed 

employing 

encounter 

encountered 

encountered 

encountering 


Appendix 


226 


encourage 

end 

endure 

enjoy 

enlighten 

enter 

equip 

escape 

establish 

excite 

exhaust 

exist 

expect 

expel 

experience 

express 

explain 

extinguish 

fall 

fear 

feed 

feel 

fight 

file 

fill 

find 

finish 

flee 

fling 

float 

% 

follow 

forbid 

foretell 

forget 

forgive 

form 

frame 

free 

freeze 

frighten 

fulfill 

furnish 


encouraged 

ended 

endured 

enjoyed 

enlightened 

entered 

equipped 

escaped 

established 

excited 

exhausted 

existed 

expected 

expelled 

experienced 

expressed 

explained 

extinguished 

fell 

feared 

fed 

felt 

fought 

filed 

filled 

found 

finished 

fled 

flung 

floated 

flew 

followed 

forbade 

foretold 

forgot 

forgave 

formed 

framed 

freed 

froze 

frightened 

fulfilled 

furnished 


encouraged 

ended 

endured 

enjoyed 

enlightened 

entered 

equipped 

escaped 

established 

excited 

exhausted 

existed 

expected 

expelled 

experienced 

expressed 

explained 

extinguished 

fallen 

feared 

fed 

felt 

fought 

filed 

filled 

found 

finished 

fled 

flung 

floated 

flown 

followed 

forbidden 

foretold 

forgotten 

forgiven 

formed 

framed 

freed 

frozen 

frightened 

fulfilled 

furnished 


encouraging 

ending 

enduring 

enjoying 

enlightening 

entering 

equipping 

escaping 

establishing 

exciting 

exhausting 

existing 

expecting 

expelling 

experiencing 

expressing 

explaining 

extinguishing 

falling 

fearing 

feeding 

feeling 

fighting 

filing 

filling 

finding 

finishing 

fleeing 

flinging 

floating 

flying 

following 

forbidding 

fortelling 

forgetting 

forgiving 

forming 

framing 

freeing 

freezing 

frightening 

fulfilling 

furnishing 


Principal parts of verbs 


227 


gather 

gathered 

get 

got 

give 

gave 

glare 

glared 

go 

went 

graduate 

graduated 

grant 

granted 

gratify 

gratified 

grind 

ground 

grow 

grew 

guarantee 

guaranteed 

guard 

guarded 

guide 

guided 

hail 

hailed 

hand 

handed 

hang 

hung, hanged 

happen 

happened 

have 

had 

hear 

heard 

help 

helped 

hesitate 

hesitated 

hew 

hewed 

hide 

hid 

hire 

hired 

hit 

hit 

hold 

held 

hope 

hoped 

howl 

howled 

hurry 

hurried 

impress 

impressed 

incline 

inclined 

increase 

increased 

indicate 

indicated 

inflect 

inflected 

influence 

influenced 

inform 

informed 

injure 

injured 

inquire 

inquired 

insert 

inserted 

insure 

insured 

intend 

intended 

interest 

interested 

introduce 

introduced 

invert 

inverted 


gathered 

gathering 

got 

getting 

given 

giving 

glared 

glaring 

gone 

going 

graduated 

graduating 

granted 

granting 

gratified 

gratifying 

ground 

grinding 

grown 

growing 

guaranteed 

guaranteeing 

guarded 

guarding 

guided 

guiding 

hailed 

hailing 

handed 

handing 

hung, hanged 

hanging 

happened 

happening 

had 

having 

heard 

hearing 

helped 

helping 

hesitated 

hesitating 

hewn 

hewing 

hidden 

hiding 

hired 

hiring 

hit 

hitting 

held 

holding 

hoped 

hoping 

howled 

howling 

hurried 

hurrying 

impressed 

impressing 

inclined 

inclining 

increased 

increasing 

indicated 

indicating 

inflected 

inflecting 

influenced 

influencing 

informed 

informing 

injured 

injuring 

inquired 

inquiring 

inserted 

inserting 

insured 

insuring 

intended 

intending 

interested 

interesting 

introduced 

introducing 

inverted 

inverting 





228 Appendix 


invite 

invited 

involve 

involved 

issue 

issued 

jeer 

jeered 

judge 

judged 

jump 

jumped 

join 

joined 

keep 

kept 

kick 

kicked 

kneel 

knelt 

knit 

knitted, knit 

know 

knew 

land 

landed 

laugh 

laughed 

lay 

laid 

lead 

led 

leap 

leaped 

learn 

learned 

lease 

leased 

leave 

left 

lend 

lent 

lengthen 

lengthened 

let 

let 

lie 

lay 

lift 

lifted 

light 

lit, lighted 

like 

liked 

limit 

limited 

listen 

listened 

live 

lived 

look 

looked 

lose 

lost 

low 

lowed 

make 

made 

manage 

managed 

march 

marched 

marry 

married 

master 

mastered 

may 

might 

mean 

meant 

measure 

measured 

meet 

met 

melt 

melted 


invited 

inviting 

involved 

involving 

issued 

issuing 

jeered 

jeering 

judged 

judging 

jumped 

jumping 

joined 

joining 

kept 

keeping 

kicked 

kicking 

knelt 

kneeling 

knitted, knit 

knitting 

known 

knowing 

landed 

landing 

laughed 

laughing 

laid 

laying 

led 

leading 

leaped 

leaping 

learned 

learning 

leased 

leasing 

left 

leaving 

lent 

lending 

lengthened 

lengthening 

let 

letting 

lain 

lying 

lifted 

lifting 

lit, lighted 

lighting 

liked 

liking 

limited 

limiting 

listened 

listening 

lived 

living 

looked 

looking 

lost 

losing 

lowed 

lowing 

made 

making 

managed 

managing 

marched 

marching 

married 

marrying 

mastered 

mastering 

meant 

meaning 

measured 

measuring 

met 

meeting 

melted 

melting 





Principal parts of verbs 229 


mend 

mended 

mention 

mentioned 

mew 

mewed 

miss 

missed 

modify 

modified 

move 

moved 

mow 

mowed 

multiply 

must 

multiplied 

name 

named 

need 

needed 

neigh 

neighed 

notice 

noticed 

notify 

notified 

observe 

observed 

oblige 

obliged 

occupy 

occupied 

offer 

offered 

omit 

omitted 

open 

opened 

oppose 

opposed 

ordain 

ordained 

organize 

organized 

ought 

overload 

overloaded 

overlook 

overlooked 

overwhelm 

overwhelmed 

owe 

owed 

own 

owned 

pardon 

pardoned 

partake 

partook 

pass 

passed 

pay 

paid 

permit 

permitted 

persuade 

persuaded 

place 

placed 

play 

played 

please 

pleased 

polish 

polished 

pour 

poured 

postpone 

postponed 

possess 

possessed 

pray 

prayed 

practise 

practised 


mended 

mending 

mentioned 

mentioning 

mewed 

mewing 

missed 

missing 

modified 

modifying 

moved 

moving 

mowed 

mowing 

multiplied 

multiplying 

named 

naming 

needed 

needing 

neighed 

neighing 

noticed 

noticing 

notified 

notifying 

observed 

observing 

obliged 

obliging 

occupied 

occupying 

offered 

offering 

omitted 

omitting 

opened 

opening 

opposed 

opposing 

ordained 

ordaining 

organized 

organizing 

overloaded 

overloading 

overlooked 

overlooking 

overwhelmed 

overwhelming 

owed 

owing 

owned 

owning 

pardoned 

pardoning 

partaken 

partaking 

passed 

passing 

paid 

paying 

permitted 

permitting 

persuaded 

persuading 

placed 

placing 

played 

playing 

pleased 

pleasing 

polished 

polishing 

poured 

pouring 

postponed 

postponing 

possessed 

possessing 

prayed 

praying 

practised 

practising 








230 Appendix 


predict 

predicted 

prepare 

prepared 

present 

presented 

preserve 

preserved 

persuade 

persuaded 

print 

printed 

procure 

procured 

profit 

profitted 

prolong 

prolonged 

promise 

promised 

promote 

promoted 

pronounce 

pronounced 

prosper 

prospered 

protect 

protected 

prove 

proved 

provide 

provided 

publish 

published 

pull 

pulled 

punish 

punished 

purr 

purred 

pursue 

pursued 

put 

put 

qualify 

qualified 

quarrel 

quarreled 

quench 

quenched 

quit 

quit 

raise 

raised 

reach 

reached 

read 

read 

rebel 

rebelled 

receive 

received 

recite 

recited 

recognize 

recognized 

reduce 

reduced 

refer 

referred 

refine 

refined 

reflect 

reflected 

refund 

refunded 

refuse 

refused 

regret 

regretted 

relate 

related 

rely 

relied 

remain 

remained 

remember 

remembered 


predicted 

predicting 

prepared 

preparing 

presented 

presenting 

preserved 

preserving 

persuaded 

persuading 

printed 

printing 

procured 

procuring 

profitted 

profitting 

prolonged 

prolonging 

promised 

promising 

promoted 

promoting 

pronounced 

pronouncing 

prospered 

prospering 

protected 

protecting 

proved 

proving 

provided 

providing 

published 

publishing 

pulled 

pulling 

punished 

punishing 

purred 

purring 

pursued 

pursuing 

put 

putting 

qualified 

qualifying 

quarreled 

quarreling 

quenched 

quenching 

quit 

quitting 

raised 

raising 

reached 

reaching 

read 

reading 

rebelled 

rebelling 

received 

receiving 

recited 

reciting 

recognized 

recognizing 

reduced 

reducing 

referred 

referring 

refined 

refining 

reflected 

reflecting 

refunded 

refunding 

refused 

refusing 

regretted 

regretting 

related 

relating 

relied 

relying 

remained 

remaining 

remembered 

remembering 


Principal parts of verbs 


231 


remind 

reminded 

remit 

remitted 

rent 

rented 

repeat 

repeated 

report 

reported 

represent 

represented 

require 

required 

rescue 

rescued 

respect 

respected 

rest 

rested 

restore 

restored 

restrict 

restricted 

result 

resulted 

retain 

retained 

return 

returned 

rid 

rid 

ride 

rode 

ring 

rang 

rise 

rose 

roar 

roared 

row 

rowed 

run 

ran 

say 

said 

satisfy 

satisfied 

save 

saved 

scatter 

scattered 

secede 

seceded 

see 

saw 

seek 

sought 

seem 

seemed 

select 

selected 

sell 

sold 

send 

sent 

serve 

served 

set 

set 

settle 

settled 

sew 

sewed 

shake 

shook 

shall 

should 

shave 

shaved 

shear 

shore 

shed 

shed 

shine 

shone 

shock 

shocked 


reminded 

reminding 

remitted 

remitting 

rented 

renting 

repeated 

repeating 

reported 

reporting 

represented 

representing 

required 

requiring 

rescued 

rescuing 

respected 

respecting 

rested 

resting 

restored 

restoring 

restricted 

restricting 

resulted 

resulting 

retained 

retaining 

returned 

returning 

rid 

ridding 

ridden 

riding 

rung 

ringing 

risen 

rising 

roared 

roaring 

rowed 

rowing 

run 

running 

said 

saying 

satisfied 

satisfying 

saved 

saving 

scattered 

scattering 

seceded 

seceding 

seen 

seeing 

sought 

seeking 

seemed 

seeming 

selected 

selecting 

sold 

selling 

sent 

sending 

served 

serving 

set 

setting 

settled 

settling 

sewn, sewed 

sewing 

shaken 

shaking 

shaved 

shaving 

shorn 

shearing 

shed 

shedding 

shone 

shining 

shocked 

shocking 




232 Appendix 


shoot 

shot 

shop 

shopped 

show 

showed 

shrink 

shrank 

shut 

shut 

sift 

sifted 

sigh 

sighed 

sign 

signed 

sing 

sang 

sink 

sank 

sit 

sat 

sleep 

slept 

slide 

slid 

slink 

slunk 

slit 

slit 

smell 

smelled 

snap 

snapped 

sound 

sounded 

sow 

sowed 

spare 

spared 

speak 

spoke 

spend 

spent 

spell 

spelled 

spill 

spilled 

spin 

spun 

spit 

spat 

split 

split 

spoil 

spoiled 

spread 

spread 

spring 

sprang 

stand 

stood 

start 

started 

state 

stated 

stay 

stayed 

steal 

stole 

stress 

stressed 

strew 

strewed 

stride 

strode 

strike 

struck 

strive 

strove 

study 

studied 

subordinate. 

subordinated 

subtract 

subtracted 

succeed 

succeeded 

suggest 

suggested 


shot 

shooting 

shopped 

shopping 

shown 

showing 

shrunk 

shrinking 

shut 

shutting 

sifted 

sifting 

sighed 

sighing 

signed 

signing 

sung 

singing 

sunk 

sinking 

sat 

sitting 

slept 

sleeping 

slid, slidden 

sliding 

slunk 

slinking 

slit 

slitting 

smelled 

smelling 

snapped 

snapping 

sounded 

sounding 

sown, sowed 

sowing 

spared 

sparing 

spoken 

speaking 

spent 

spending 

spelled 

spelling 

spilled 

spilling 

spun 

spinning 

spat 

spitting 

split 

splitting 

spoiled 

spoiling 

spread 

spreading 

sprung 

springing 

stood 

standing 

started 

starting 

stated 

stating 

stayed 

staying 

stolen 

stealing 

stressed 

stressing 

strewn, strewed 

strewing 

stridden 

striding 

struck, stricken 

striking 

striven 

striving 

studied 

studying 

subordinated 

subordinating 

subtracted 

subtracting 

succeeded 

succeeding 

suggested 

suggesting 


Principal parts of verbs 233 


suit 

suited 

suited 

suiting 

supply 

supplied 

supplied 

supplying 

suppose 

supposed 

supposed 

supposing 

surpass 

surpassed 

surpassed 

surpassing 

surprise 

surprised 

surprised 

surprising 

suspect 

suspected 

suspected 

suspecting 

swear 

swore 

sworn 

swearing 

sweep 

swept 

swept 

sweeping 

swell 

swelled 

swollen, swelled 

swelling 

swim 

swam 

swum 

swimming 

swing 

swung 

swung 

swinging 

take 

took 

taken 

taking 

talk 

talked 

talked 

talking 

teach 

taught 

taught 

teaching 

taste 

tasted 

tasted 

tasting 

tear 

tore 

torn 

tearing 

tell 

told 

told 

telling 

thank 

thanked 

thanked 

thanking 

think 

thought 

thought 

thinking 

thrill 

thrilled 

thrilled 

thrilling 

thrive 

throve, thrived 

thrived, thriven 

thriving 

throw 

threw 

thrown 

throwing 

thrust 

thrusted 

thrusted 

thrusting 

tick 

ticked 

ticked 

ticking 

tie 

tied 

tied 

tying 

toss 

tossed 

tossed 

tossing 

touch 

touched 

touched 

touching 

tower 

towered 

towered 

towering 

trade 

traded 

traded 

trading 

travel 

traveled 

traveled 

traveling 

tread 

trod 

trod 

treading 

trouble 

troubled 

troubled 

troubling 

trust 

trusted 

trusted 

trusting 

try 

tried 

tried 

trying 

turn 

turned 

turned 

turning 

twinkle 

twinkled 

twinkled 

twinkling 

unite 

united 

united 

uniting 

use 

used 

used 

using 

visit 

visited 

visited 

visiting 

vouchsafe 

vouchsafed 

vouchsafed 

vouchsafing 

wait 

waited 

waited 

waiting 

walk 

walked 

walked 

walking 

want 

wanted 

wanted 

wanting 


234 Appendix 


waste 

wasted 

watch 

watched 

wave 

waved 

weaken 

weakened 

wear 

wore 

weave 

wove 

whirl 

whirled 

widen 

widened 

will 

would 

wilt 

wilted 

win 

won 

wind 

wound 

wish 

wished 

wonder 

wondered 

work 

worked 

wring 

wrung 

write 

wrote 


wasted 

wasting 

watched 

watching 

waved 

waving 

weakened 

weakening 

worn 

wearing 

woven 

weaving 

whirled 

whirling 

widened 

widening 

wilted 

wilting 

won 

winning 

wound 

winding 

wished 

wishing 

wondered 

wondering 

worked 

working 

wrung 

wringing 

written 

writing 
















































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Deacidified using the Bookkeeper process. 
Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide 
Treatment Date: Oct. 2006 

PreservationTechnologies 

A WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVATION 

111 Thomson Park Drive 
Cranberry Township, PA 16066 
(724) 779-2111 






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